Most often, the basis for dividing social control into different types is the subjectivity of its implementation. The subjects here are workers, administration, public organizations of labor collectives.

Depending on the subject, the following are usually distinguished: types of social control:

1. Administrative control. Carried out by representatives of the enterprise administration, managers at various levels in accordance with regulatory documents. This type of control is also called external, since its subject is not included in the directly controlled system of relations and activities and is outside this system. In an organization, this is possible thanks to managerial relations, so here the control exercised by the administration is external.

The advantages of administrative control are due primarily to the fact that it is a special and independent activity. This, on the one hand, frees personnel directly involved in the main production tasks from control functions, and on the other hand, it contributes to the implementation of these functions at a professional level.

The disadvantages of administrative control are that it may not always be comprehensive and prompt; It is also quite possible that he is biased.

2. Public control. Carried out by public organizations within the framework provided for by the charters or regulations on their status. The effectiveness of public control is determined by the organization, structure and cohesion of the relevant public organizations.

3. Group control. This is mutual control of team members. There are formal group control (work meetings and conferences, production meetings) and informal (general opinion in the team, collective sentiments).

Mutual control arises when the bearers of social control functions are subjects of organizational and labor relations who have the same status. Among the advantages of mutual control, the simplicity of the supervision mechanism is noted first of all, since normal or deviant behavior is observed directly. This not only ensures the relatively constant nature of control functions, but also reduces the likelihood of errors in regulatory assessment associated with misrepresentation of facts in the process of obtaining information.

However, mutual control also has disadvantages. First of all, this is subjectivity: if relations between people are characterized by competition and rivalry, then they are naturally predisposed to unfairly attribute to each other some violations of discipline, and to prejudicially evaluate each other’s organizational and labor behavior.

4. Self-control. It represents the conscious regulation of one’s own labor behavior based on self-assessments and assessments of compliance with existing requirements and standards. As we see, self-control is a specific way of behavior of the subject of organizational-labor relations, in which he independently (regardless of the factor of external coercion) supervises his own actions and behaves in accordance with socially accepted norms.

The main advantage of self-control is limiting the need for special control activities from the administration. In addition, self-control allows the employee to feel freedom, independence, and personal significance.

Self-control has two main drawbacks: each subject, in assessing his own behavior, tends to underestimate social and normative requirements, and is more liberal towards himself than towards others; self-control is largely random, that is, poorly predictable and controllable, depends on the state of the subject as a person, and manifests itself only with such qualities as consciousness and morality.

Depending on the nature of the sanctions or rewards used, social control is of two types: economic (rewards, penalties) and moral (contempt, respect).

Depending on the nature of the implementation of social control, the following types are distinguished.

1. Continuous and selective. Continuous social control is of an ongoing nature; the entire process of organizational-labor relations, all individuals included in the organization, are subject to supervision and evaluation. With selective control, its functions are relatively limited; they apply only to the most significant, predetermined aspects of the labor process.

3. Open and hidden. The choice of an open or hidden form of social control is determined by the state of awareness, awareness of the social control functions of the control object. Hidden control is carried out using technical means or through intermediaries.

Human life is regulated by numerous norms that determine what is good and what is bad. One of the mechanisms for creating and maintaining order among people is social control, which has different types and features.

What is social control?

The mechanism used to maintain order in society is called social control. With its help, you can prevent the occurrence of deviations in people's behavior and receiving punishment for them. For it, regulatory regulation is used. Social control is a means that helps a person internalize the cultural norms that have developed in society. This term was first introduced in France by sociologist Gabriel Tardom.

Social control in sociology

To regulate human behavior in society, various methods are used, which imply the subordination of the individual to the group. The concept of social control includes two elements: norms and sanctions. The first term refers to the rules and standards established by law or approved by society that regulate people's behavior. Sanctions are elements of social control that involve defining methods of reward and punishment that encourage people to adhere to norms.

Social control in economics

Any organization creates groups of people that are based on a certain form of social control. Researchers in the history of economics have identified four main types of regulation.

1. For primitive people the essence of social control was moral in nature.
2. When the slave system was established, corporal punishment was used.
3. During the period of feudalism, social control was based on administrative restrictions.
4. During the establishment of capitalism, economic controls were used.

Social control in religion

To carry out public relations and as a means of social control, religion is applicable, which unites huge amount people. She has her own methods and techniques based on the authority of the Lord. If we look through history, we can find many examples where religious means of social control helped maintain social bonds when the role of the state weakened. In this case, the main instruments of religion include: the cult of the prophet, holy books and faith.

Why is social control needed?

In all types of society there was social control and initially these were simple customs with the help of which they understood what was acceptable and what was not. There are a number of important functions for which social regulation is used:

1. Protective. With the help of certain restrictions, it is possible to preserve public (life, honor, freedom, property, etc.) and prevent attempts to encroach on them. Using the security function you can transfer social experience from one generation to another.
2. Regulatory. The functions of social control are manifested in different levels life, and in this case refers to the set of processes that direct, determine and limit the form for the embodiment of a person's or group's own potential and experience in certain conditions.
3. Stabilizing. The importance of social control for society is manifested in the ability to predict human behavior in different situations, which helps ensure social order.

Types of social control

There are several classifications that focus on different criteria. There are forms of social control that depend on the subject:

1. Administrative. Implemented by managers at different levels with a focus on existing regulatory documents. The disadvantages include the fact that administrative control may not always be prompt, objective and comprehensive.
2. Public. The structure of social control includes a form of regulation that is carried out through public organizations. To do this, they use different charters and regulations related to their status. Its effectiveness is due to the fact that such groups are organized and structured.
3. Group. This implies mutual control of individual team members. It can be formal, that is, when meetings, meetings and conferences are used, and informal, implying a common collective opinion and mood.

Internal and external social control

If we focus on the scope of regulation, we distinguish the following classification:

1. External social control. It implies a set of certain mechanisms used to regulate human reality. It can be formal or informal. This classification will be discussed below. IN modern world such control is ineffective, since it is necessary to constantly monitor the actions of each person or social community. As a result, a certain chain of “controllers” is formed, which is more characteristic of totalitarianism.
2. Internal social control. What is meant here is that each person controls himself independently, taking into account known norms of behavior. Correction of behavior is carried out using the sense of shame and shame that a person feels as a result of violating social rules. For the successful functioning of self-control, a clear identification of norms and values ​​is important.

Formal and informal social control

As already stated, external regulation is divided into two separate groups:

1. Formal control. Implies official consent or denial on the part of the authorities or various organizations, media, education systems, and so on. For this purpose, various laws, decrees, instructions and other documents are used. Formal social control is a series of actions that are designed to force a person to comply with the law. There are different authorities for this purpose. It gives good results in large groups.
2. Informal control. In this case, it means receiving approval or condemnation from relatives, friends, colleagues and other people from the environment. Traditions, customs and the media are used for this. Informal control is exercised by the following social institutions: family, school and church. It gives results when targeting small groups.

Social control and self-control

It has already been said that internal social control is also called self-control and by it is meant the assessment and regulation of one’s own thoughts and behavior. In this case, will is of great importance, which determines a person’s ability to make and implement conscious decisions. Social control provides the opportunity to achieve goals in life. It can be determined based on innate genetic characteristics and psychological human skills.

Social control and deviance

Deviation from social norms or deviation refers to the behavior of an individual or group of individuals that contradicts existing norms. They can take different formations. Examples of violators include criminals, sinners, innovators, geniuses and other people whose behavior goes beyond what is permitted. It is worth noting the fact that social control is very difficult to define, since situations are often not clear-cut

The desire for such deviations can be caused by a number of reasons that are biological, psychological and social in nature. The structure of deviation includes three main components:

1. A person who has certain behavioral traits.
2. Norms established in order to evaluate the command of a deviant type.
3. People or organizations that can regulate a person's command.

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Federal Agency for Education

Penza State University

Department of Sociology and Personnel Management

Coursework on the topic

“The essence and forms of social control”

Discipline sociology

Completed by: student gr.08bx3

Tsyruleva Olga

Checked by: KSN, associate professor of the department

CP Kozina E.S.

Society is a self-regulating complex social system. The most important role in the social regulation of public life is played by social culture, and above all social values, norms, social institutions and organizations. At the same time, in the social structure of society there is and plays an important role in a special structural formation - the institution of social control. He acts as part common system social regulation and is designed to ensure the normal, orderly functioning and development of society by various means, as well as to prevent and correct such social deviations that can disorganize public life and social order.

Social control plays an important role in the life of society, because no society can successfully function and develop without a system of social control. So E. Fromm wrote that society can only function effectively when its members achieve a type of behavior in which they want to act as they should act as members of a given society.

Many sociologists have studied social control. Term "social control" was introduced into scientific vocabulary by the famous French sociologist, one of the founders social psychology, Gabriel Tarde, who proposed to consider it as one of the most important factors of socialization. Later, in the works of a number of scientists - such as E. Ross, R. Park, A. Lapierre - the theory of social control was developed.

I consider the topic of this course work to be relevant, since society is a dynamic system and as this system develops, various traditions, norms, and values ​​take shape and develop. The system of social control is also constantly evolving, becoming more flexible and effective, so there is still a lot of material for research and study of this topic. In addition, a person is interested in a calm and prosperous life, in social order, in successful development and the functioning of society. All this is ensured by the institution of social control, and the more it develops and improves, the more organized and prosperous society will be. Therefore, the system of social control needs to be studied more deeply and different solutions must be found. social conflicts and improve the current social culture.

Purpose of the course work– determine the role of social control in society, identify the dependence of the direction and content of social control on the economic, political, ideological and other characteristics of a given social system, historically determined by the level of its development. In addition, we need to draw conclusions about the influence of social control on the development of a person’s personality and society as a whole.

The set goal determined the following tasks :

· Consider the essence of social control, its definition as the most important means to ensure the process of assimilation by each person of various elements of the culture that has developed in a given society;

· To become familiar with the various functions of social control that it performs in society;

· Explore forms of social control, their interrelation and effectiveness of influence on society, based on the works of A.I. Kravchenko, V.F. Anurin, V.V. Latysheva, P. Berger, and many others.

Thus, object of this course work is directly the Institute of Social Control, and subject– its close relationship with society, the forms in which it is carried out, as well as the effectiveness of the influence of social control on society.

Chapter 1. The concept of social control: its essence and elements

1.1 The concept of social control, its functions

The concept of social control was introduced by T. Tarde, the founder of social psychology, who understood it as a set of ways in which a criminal is led to normal behavior. Subsequently, the meaning of this term expanded significantly. This happened largely thanks to the research of American sociologists E. Ross and R. Park, who understood social control as a purposeful influence on an individual in order to bring human behavior into conformity with social norms.

According to T. Parsons, social control is a process by which, through the imposition of sanctions, deviant behavior is counteracted, i.e. deviant behavior and maintain social stability.

So, social control – this is a method of self-regulation of a social system (society as a whole, a social group, etc.), ensuring, through normative regulation, the targeted influence of people and other structural elements of this system, their orderly interaction in the interests of strengthening order and stability.

When analyzing the content of this general definition, it is important to keep in mind a number of fundamental points:

· Social control – component a more general and diverse system of social regulation of human behavior and social life. Its specificity lies in the fact that such regulation here is orderly, normative and quite categorical in nature and is ensured by social sanctions or the threat of their application;

· The problem of social control is a certain cross-section of the main sociological issue about the relationship and interaction of the individual, social group and society as a whole. Social control is also exercised through the socialization of the individual, i.e. internal control, and through the interaction of the individual with the primary social group, its culture, i.e. group control and through the interaction of the individual, social group with society as a whole, i.e. social control through coercion;

· You cannot imagine social control one-sidedly - as a blind and automatic subordination of the individual to the requirements of social norms, when the individual acts only as an object, and society as a subject. It must be seen that in this case it is precisely social interaction that takes place, moreover, constant and active, in which not only the individual experiences the influence of social control, but also social control undergoes a reverse influence on the part of the individual, which can even lead to a change in his character;

· The nature, content and direction of social control are determined by the nature, nature, type of a given social system. It is quite obvious that social control in a totalitarian society and in a democratic society will be fundamentally different. In the same way, social control in simple, primitive, archaic societies is of a completely different (for example, informal) nature in comparison with social control in complex modern industrial societies (complex and developed system of formalized control).

The main purpose of social control is to maintain order and stability in society, as well as to ensure social reproduction (continuity) in the direction corresponding to the development strategy chosen by a particular society. Thanks to the mechanisms of socialization, prescription, reward, selection and control, the social system maintains equilibrium.

The following distinctive features of social control can be pointed out:

1) orderliness, categoricalness and formalization: social norms are often applied to an individual without taking into account his personal characteristics; in other words, a person must accept a norm only because he is a member of a given society;

2) connection with sanctions - punishments for violating norms and rewards for their compliance;

3) collective exercise of social control: social action is often a reaction to a particular human behavior, and therefore can be both a negative and a positive stimulus when choosing goals and means of achieving them.

Characterizing the anatomy and mechanism of the social control system, the famous Russian sociologist and lawyer A.M. Yakovlev identifies the following components and the relationship between them:

· individual actions that manifest themselves during the individual’s active interaction with the social environment;

· a social rating scale, derived from a system of values, ideals, vital interests and aspirations of a social group or the whole society, on which the reaction of the social environment to an individual action depends;

· categorization of individual action, i.e. assigning it to a certain category of socially approved or condemned actions, which is the result of the functioning of the social rating scale;

· the nature of public self-awareness, including the nature of public self-esteem and the social group’s assessment of the situation within which it operates, on which the categorization of individual action depends;

· the nature and content of social actions that perform the function of positive or negative sanctions and directly depend on the state of public self-awareness;

· an individual rating scale, derived from the system of values, ideals, life interests and aspirations of the individual and determining the individual’s reaction to social action.

The mechanism of social control plays a vital role in strengthening the institutions of society. Figuratively speaking, this mechanism is the “central nervous system” of a social institution. Social institutions and social control consist of the same elements, i.e., identical rules and norms of behavior that reinforce and standardize people’s behavior, making it predictable. P. Berger believes that “social control is one of the most generally accepted concepts in sociology. It refers to a variety of means that any society uses to curb its rebellious members. No society can do without social control. Even a small group of people who come together by chance will have to develop their own control mechanisms so as not to fall apart in the shortest possible time.”

Social control in relation to society performs two main functions:

· Protective function. This function sometimes prevents social control from acting as a supporter of progress, but the list of its functions does not precisely include the renewal of society - this is the task of other public institutions. Thus, social control protects morality, law, values, requires respect for traditions, and opposes what is new, which has not been properly tested.

· Stabilizing function. Social control acts as the foundation of stability in society. Its absence or weakening leads to anomie, disorder, confusion and social discord.

1.2 Elements of social control

1.2.1 Social norms as a regulator of behavior

Every person understands that no one could successfully build their relationships with other people and social organizations without mutual correlation of actions with socially approved rules. These rules, which act as a standard for our actions, are called social norms.

Social norms- these are instructions, instructions and wishes of varying degrees of severity, forcing individuals to act as is customary to do in a given society, in a specific situation. Social norms act as regulators of people's behavior. They establish boundaries, conditions, forms of action, determine the nature of relationships, stipulate acceptable goals and ways to achieve them. The assimilation of social norms of society and the development of an individual attitude towards them occur in the process of socialization.

Norms impose obligations and mutual responsibility on participants in social interaction. They concern both individuals and society. The entire system is formed on their basis. social relations. At the same time, norms are also expectations: society expects predictable behavior from an individual performing a certain role. The individual also assumes that society will justify his trust and fulfill its obligations.

Social norms are a product of the spiritual activity of society. They are in constant development. Yes, many modern rules behaviors are radically different from those that were common a hundred years ago. Social norms perform an important function - they support and preserve social values, that which is recognized in society as the most important, significant, undeniable, and worthy of attention: human life and personal dignity, attitude towards older people and children, collective symbols (coat of arms, anthem, flag) and state laws, human qualities (loyalty, honesty, discipline, hard work), religions. Values ​​are the basis of norms.

Social norms in a generalized form reflect the will of society. In contrast to the values ​​that are recommended for choice (which predetermines differences in the value orientations of many individuals), norms are more rigid and binding.

There are several types of social norms:

1)customs and traditions, which are habitual patterns of behavior;

2) moral norms based on collective authority and usually having a rational basis;

3) legal norms enshrined in laws and regulations issued by the state. They more clearly than all other types of social norms regulate the rights and obligations of members of society and prescribe punishments for violations. Compliance with legal norms is ensured by the power of the state;

4) political norms that relate to the relationship between the individual and the government. Between social groups and between states are reflected in international legal acts, conventions, etc.;

5) religious norms, which are supported primarily by the belief of religious supporters in punishment for sins. Religious norms are distinguished based on the scope of their functioning; in reality, these norms combine elements characteristic of legal and moral norms, as well as traditions and customs;

6) aesthetic norms that reinforce ideas about the beautiful and the ugly.

Social norms are determined by the diversity of social life, any direction human activity regulated by them. Various types social norms can be classified according to the following criteria:

· according to the scale of distribution - universal, national, social group, organizational;

· by functions – guiding, regulating, controlling, encouraging, prohibiting and punishing;

· according to the degree of increasing severity - habits, customs, manners, traditions, laws, taboos. Violating customs or traditions in modern society is not considered a crime and is not strictly condemned. A person bears strict liability for breaking laws. Thus, social norms fulfill very important Features:

· regulate the general course of socialization;

· integrate individuals into groups, and groups into society;

· control deviant behavior;

· Serve as models and standards of behavior.

Deviation from the norms is punished with sanctions.

1.2.2 Sanctions as an element of social control

In order to quickly respond to people's actions, expressing its attitude towards them, society has created a system of social sanctions.

Sanctions are society's reactions to an individual's actions. The emergence of a system of social sanctions, like norms, was not accidental. If norms are created to protect the values ​​of society, then sanctions are designed to protect and strengthen the system of social norms. If a norm is not supported by a sanction, it ceases to apply. Thus, three elements - values, norms and sanctions - form a single chain of social control. In this chain, sanctions play the role of a tool with the help of which an individual first gets acquainted with the norm and then realizes values. For example, a teacher praises a student for a well-learned lesson, encouraging him for his conscientious attitude to learning. Praise acts as a stimulus to reinforce such behavior in the child’s mind as normal. Over time, he realizes the value of knowledge and, having acquired it, will no longer need external control. This example shows how the consistent implementation of the entire chain of social control transforms external control into self-control. There are different types of sanctions. Among them we can distinguish positive and negative, formal and informal.

· Positive sanctions are approval, praise, recognition, encouragement, fame, honor that others reward those who act within the framework of accepted norms in society. Not only outstanding actions of people are encouraged, but also a conscientious attitude towards professional duties, many years of impeccable work and initiative, as a result of which the organization made a profit, and providing assistance to those who need it. Each type of activity has its own incentives.

· Negative sanctions – condemning or punishing the actions of society towards those individuals who violate the norms accepted in society. Negative sanctions include censure, dissatisfaction of others, condemnation, reprimand, criticism, fine, as well as more stringent actions - imprisonment, imprisonment or confiscation of property. The threat of negative sanctions is more effective than the expectation of reward. At the same time, society strives to ensure that negative sanctions do not punish so much as prevent violations of norms, and are proactive rather than late.

· Formal sanctions come from official organizations– governments or administrations of institutions that, in their actions, are guided by officially adopted documents, instructions, laws and decrees.

· Informal sanctions come from those people who surround us: acquaintances, friends, parents, work colleagues, classmates, passers-by. Formal and informal sanctions can also be:

· Material – a gift or fine, bonus or confiscation of property;

· Moral - awarding a diploma or honorary title, unkind feedback or a cruel joke, reprimand.

In order for sanctions to be effective and reinforce social norms, they must meet a number of requirements:

sanctions must be timely. Their effectiveness is significantly reduced if a person is rewarded, much less punished, after a significant period of time. In this case, the action and the sanction for it are separated from each other;

sanctions must be proportionate to the action justified. Undeserved encouragement gives rise to dependent attitudes, and punishment destroys faith in justice and causes discontent in society;

· sanctions, like norms, should be mandatory for everyone. Exceptions to the rules give rise to a “double standard” morality, which negatively affects the entire regulatory system.

Thus, norms and sanctions are combined into a single whole. If a norm does not have an accompanying sanction, then it ceases to operate and regulate real behavior. It can become a slogan, a call, an appeal, but it ceases to be an element of social control.

1.3 Self-monitoring

Depending on the method of imposing sanctions - collective or individual - social control can be external and internal. Internal control is also called self-control: the individual independently regulates his behavior, coordinating it with generally accepted norms. During the process of socialization, norms are internalized so firmly that people who violate them feel awkward or guilty. Contrary to the norms of appropriate behavior, a person, for example, envies a more successful opponent. In such cases they talk about pangs of conscience. Conscience is a manifestation of internal control.

Generally accepted norms, being rational prescriptions, remain in the sphere, below which lies the sphere of the subconscious, consisting of spontaneous impulses. Self-control means restraining the natural elements; it is based on volitional effort.

Self-awareness is an extremely important socio-psychological characteristic of a person. The source from which a person’s self-image is drawn are the people around him and those who are significant to him. By the reaction to his actions, according to their assessments, the individual judges what he himself is like. The content of self-awareness is influenced by a person’s idea of ​​how others consider him. A person’s social behavior is largely determined by his reaction to the opinions of people around him, and this opinion seriously influences the formation of individual self-awareness.

About 70% of social control comes from self-control. The more self-control the members of a society develop, the less that society has to resort to external control. And vice versa, the less self-control is developed in people, the more often institutions of social control, in particular the army, courts, and the state, have to come into action. The weaker the self-control, the stricter the external control should be.

Self-control is one of the most important conditions for the self-realization of an individual and his successful interaction with other people. Society evaluates a person, but the individual also evaluates society, the state and himself. Perceiving assessments addressed to him from surrounding people, groups and society, a person accepts them not mechanically, but selectively, rethinks them through a certain own experience, habits, previously acquired social norms. Accordingly, a person’s attitude towards other people’s assessments turns out to be purely individual, either positive, negative, or neutral.

.4 P. Berger’s concept of social control

According to Peter Berger's concept, each person is at the center of diverging concentric circles representing different types, types and forms of social control. Each subsequent circle is new system control. [Appendix 1]

The outer, largest circle is political-legal system represented by a powerful state apparatus. Everyone is powerless before him. Against our will, the state collects taxes, calls for military service, forces one to obey his endless laws and statutes, rules and regulations, and if necessary, he will put him in prison and can take his life. The individual is in the center of the circle as at the point of maximum pressure.

Next circle of social control includes morals, customs and manners. Everyone monitors a person’s morality - from the entire society to parents, relatives, and friends. Authorities can deprive us of freedom for violating the law, parents and relatives use informal sanctions: condemnation, censure, and friends, not forgiving betrayal or meanness, can part with us. Everyone, within their competence, uses tools of social control. Immorality is punished by dismissal from work, eccentricity by loss of chances to find a new job, bad manners by the fact that the person will not be invited to visit. Lack of work and loneliness are perhaps no less a punishment than being in prison, says P. Berger.

In addition to large circles of coercion, in which the individual is located along with other members of society, there are small circles of control, the most significant of which is circle of control from the outside professional system . At work, a person is constrained by a mass of restrictions, instructions, professional responsibilities, business obligations that have a controlling effect, sometimes quite severe. The businessman is controlled by licensing organizations, the worker by professional associations and trade unions, the subordinate by managers, who, in turn, are controlled by higher authorities. Equally important are various methods of informal control on the part of colleagues and employees.

Peter Berger writes about this as follows: “...The reader can, for clarity, imagine a doctor who admits a patient who is unprofitable for the clinic for treatment; an entrepreneur who advertises inexpensive funerals... a government official who persistently spends less than budgeted; an assembly line worker who, from the point of view of his colleagues, unacceptably exceeds production standards, etc. In these cases, economic sanctions are applied most often and effectively: a doctor is denied practice, an entrepreneur can be expelled from a professional organization... Equally serious can be be sanctioned by public boycott, contempt, ridicule. Any professional role in society, even the most insignificant, presupposes a special code of conduct... Adherence to this code is usually as necessary for a professional career as technical competence and appropriate education.”

The next circle of control includes informal requirements to the individual, because every person, in addition to professional ones, is also involved in other social relationships. These relationships have their own control systems, many of which are more formal, others even stricter than professional. For example, the rules for admission and membership in many clubs and fraternities are as strict as the rules by which the management staff at IBM is selected. Thus, an independent system of social control is represented by social environment. It includes distant and close, unfamiliar and familiar people. The environment makes its own demands on a person, which represent a wide range of phenomena. These may include the way we dress and speak, aesthetic tastes, political and religious beliefs, and even table manners. Thus, the range of informal requirements describes the range of possible actions of an individual in certain situations.

The last and closest circle to the individual, which also forms a control system, is the group of people in which the privacy individual, i.e. this his family circle and personal friends. Social or, more precisely, normative pressure on the individual does not weaken here - on the contrary, there is every reason to believe that in a certain sense it even increases. It is not surprising, because it is in this circle that the individual establishes the most important social connections. Disapproval, loss of prestige, ridicule or contempt among family and friends have much greater psychological weight for a person than similar sanctions coming from strangers or strangers. At work, a boss can fire a subordinate, depriving him of his means of subsistence. But the psychological consequences of this formal economic action will be truly disastrous, says P. Berger, if his wife and children survive this dismissal. Unlike other control systems, pressure from loved ones can occur precisely when the individual is completely unprepared for it. At work, in transport, in public places a person is usually alert and potentially ready to confront any threat.

The inner part of the last circle, it core, make up intimate relationships husband and wife. It is in the most intimate relationships that a person seeks support for himself. To put these connections on the line is to risk losing yourself. “It is not surprising that often people who are powerful at work instantly give up their homes to their wives and cringe when their friends’ eyebrows rise in displeasure.”

A person, having looked around himself and successively listed everyone to whom he must yield, obey or please due to his location in the center of concentric circles of social control - from the federal tax service to his own wife - eventually comes to the idea that society in its entirety suppresses it.

Chapter 2. Forms and implementation of social control

2.1 Forms of social control

In sociological science, there are 4 fundamental forms of social control:

· external control;

· internal control;

· control through identification with the reference group;

· control through the creation of opportunities to achieve socially significant goals by means that are most suitable for a given person and approved by society (the so-called “multiple opportunities”).

1) The first form of control – external social control is a set of social mechanisms that regulate the activities of an individual. External control can be formal or informal. Formal control is based on instructions, regulations, norms and regulations, while informal control is based on the reactions of the environment.

This form is the most well-known and understandable, but in modern conditions seems ineffective, since it involves constant monitoring of the actions of an individual or a social community, therefore, a whole army of controllers is required, and someone must also monitor them. Thus, on a societal scale, a classic “pyramid of controllers” is built, characteristic of a totalitarian state.

2) The second form of control – internal social control- This is self-control exercised by a person, aimed at coordinating his own behavior with the norms. Regulation in this case is carried out not within the framework of interaction, but as a result of feelings of guilt or shame that arise when learned norms are violated. This form involves the internalization of norms and values. That is, the controller is no longer something external to the individual. Such control is more effective in modern conditions; it shifts responsibility from the external controller to the actor himself. For this form of control to function successfully, society must have an established system of norms and values.

The third and fourth forms of control are less known and require the use of more subtle socio-psychological mechanisms.

3) Third form – control through identification with a reference group– allows you to show the actor possible and desirable models of behavior for society, seemingly without limiting the freedom of choice of the actor;

4) The fourth form – the so-called “multiple possibilities” – assumes that, by showing the actor various possible options achieving the goal, society will thereby protect itself from the choice by the activist of those forms that are undesirable for society.

Kasyanov V.V. considers a slightly different classification. His social control is carried out in the following forms:

· Compulsion, the so-called elementary form. Many primitive or traditional societies successfully control the behavior of individuals through moral norms and, therefore, through informal group control of the primary group; formal laws or punishments are not necessary in such societies. But in large, complex human populations, where many cultural complexes are intertwined, formal controls, laws and systems of punishment constantly evolve and become mandatory. If an individual can easily get lost in the crowd, informal control becomes ineffective and the need for formal control arises.

Thus, in the presence of a high population, so-called secondary group control begins to be applied - laws, various violent regulators, formalized procedures. When an individual does not want to follow these regulations, the group or society resorts to coercion to force him to do the same as everyone else. In modern societies there are strictly developed rules, or a system of control through coercion, which is a set of effective sanctions applied in accordance with various types deviations from norms;

· Influence public opinion . People in a society are also controlled by public opinion or by socialization in such a way that they perform their roles unconsciously, naturally, due to the customs, habits and preferences accepted in a given society. Thus, socialization, shaping our habits, desires and customs, is one of the main factors of social control and the establishment of order in society. It eases the difficulties in making decisions by suggesting how to dress, how to behave, how to act in a particular situation. life situation. At the same time, any decision that is made and internalized not in accordance with public opinion seems inappropriate, unfamiliar and dangerous to us. It is in this way that a significant part of the individual’s internal control over his behavior is carried out;

· Regulation in social institutions and organizations. Social control is provided by various institutions and organizations. Among them are organizations specifically created to perform a control function, and those for which social control is not the main function (for example, school, family, funds mass media, administration of institutions).

· Group pressure. A person cannot participate in public life based only on internal control. His behavior is also influenced by his involvement in social life, which is expressed in the fact that the individual is a member of many primary groups (family, production team, class, student group, etc.). Each of the primary groups has an established system of customs, mores and institutional norms that are specific both to this group and to society as a whole.

Thus, the possibility of exercising group social control is determined by the inclusion of each individual in the primary social group. A necessary condition Such inclusion is served by the fact that the individual must share a certain minimum of cultural norms accepted by a given group, constituting a formal or informal code of conduct. Any deviation from this order immediately leads to condemnation of the behavior by the group. Depending on the importance of the norm being violated, a wide range of condemnation and sanctions from the group is possible - from simple remarks to expulsion from a given primary group.

The effectiveness and timeliness of the application of social control is not always the same in all primary groups. Group pressure on an individual who violates norms depends on many factors, and, above all, on the status of the individual. Completely different methods of group pressure are applied to individuals with high and low statuses in the group. A person with a high status in the primary group or a group leader has as one of his main responsibilities the change of old and the creation of new cultural patterns, new ways of interaction. For this, the leader receives credit and can himself, to one degree or another, deviate from group norms. Moreover, in order not to lose his status as a leader, he should not be completely identical to the members of the group. However, when deviating from group norms, each leader has a line over which he cannot cross. Beyond this point, he begins to experience the effects of group social control on the part of other group members and his leadership influence ends.

The degree and type of group pressure also depend on the characteristics of the primary group. If, for example, group cohesion is high, group loyalty to the cultural patterns of a given group also becomes high and, naturally, the degree of social group control increases. Group pressure from loyal group members (i.e., group members who are committed to group values) is stronger than from members of a disengaged group. For example, a group spending only free time and therefore, it is much more difficult for a disunited group to exercise intragroup social control than for a group that performs regular joint actions, for example, in a team or family.

The first three forms were identified by R. Park, the fourth form was described by the American sociologist S. Ask.

This list does not include such important element, as the presence of common values ​​acquired by individuals in the process of socialization. The fact is that social control based on coercion does not always reduce the number of deviations. Naturally, there are many individual reasons why people violate social norms. However, violating norms can become a practice that is tacitly approved or simply tolerated by society. This usually happens when the norms are too strict (or people perceive them to be too strict). For this reason, tough police measures directed against a certain type of offense rarely bring positive results, although condoning deviant behavior is also unacceptable.

Based on this, two conclusions can be drawn:

1) social control can be effective only if it adheres to the “golden mean” between freedom of choice and responsibility for this choice;

2) this feature indicates that social control operates mainly not due to coercion, but due to the presence of common values ​​and stability of society and social groups.

In addition to the above forms of social control, there is also general And detailed control.

Sometimes control is equated with management. The content of control and management is largely similar, but they should be distinguished. The mother or father controls how the child does his homework. Parents do not manage, but rather control the process, since the goals and objectives were set not by them, but by the teacher. Parents only monitor the progress of the task.

Thus, control is a narrower concept than management.

The difference between management and control is that the former is expressed through leadership style, and the latter through methods. Control methods can be general And detailed. For example, a manager gives a subordinate a task and does not control the progress of its implementation - he resorts to general control . If a manager interferes in every action of his subordinates, corrects, reprimands, etc., he is using detailed control.

Detailed control is also called supervision. Supervision is carried out not only at the micro, but also at the macro level of society. The state becomes its subject, and it turns into a non-main social institution . Surveillance grows to size large-scale social system, covering the entire country. This system includes: detective bureaus, detective agencies, police stations, informant service, prison guards, courts, censorship.

Since control is included in management as an integral part, but a very important part, we can conclude that depending on the type of control, management itself will change. A part, if important enough, determines the character of the whole. Thus, control methods affect the management style, which, in turn, has two types - style authoritarian and style democratic.

2.2 Agents and tools of social control

Social control is the most effective way, with the help of which powerful institutions of society organize the life of ordinary citizens. The tools, or in this case, methods of social control are extremely diverse; they depend on the situation, goals and nature of the specific group in relation to which they are used. The range of their application is enormous: from clarification of relationships between specific people to psychological pressure, physical violence, and economic coercion of a person by the entire society. It is not necessary that control mechanisms be aimed at condemning an undesirable person or inducing others to be disloyal to him. “Disapproval” is most often expressed not in relation to the individual himself, but in relation to his actions, statements, and interactions with other persons.

External control – it is a set of institutions and mechanisms that guarantee compliance with generally accepted norms of behavior and laws. It is divided into formal, i.e. institutional, and informal, i.e. intragroup.

Formal control based on approval or condemnation from official authorities and administration.

Informal control based on approval or condemnation from public opinion, which is expressed through traditions, customs or the media, as well as from a group of relatives, friends, colleagues, acquaintances. They are called agents of informal control. If we consider the family as a social institution, then we should talk about it as the most important institution of social control.

In compact primary groups, extremely effective and at the same time very subtle control mechanisms, such as persuasion, ridicule, gossip and contempt, are constantly in operation to curb real and potential deviants. Ridicule and gossip are powerful tools of social control in all types of primary groups. Unlike methods of formal control, such as reprimand or demotion, informal methods are available to almost everyone. Both ridicule and gossip can be manipulated by any intelligent person who has access to their transmission channels.

Formal control historically arose later than informal control - during the emergence of complex societies and states, in particular, ancient Eastern empires. However, in modern society the importance of formal control has increased significantly. In a complex society , especially in a country with a population of many millions, it is much more difficult to maintain order and stability. After all, informal control over an individual by such a society is limited to a small group of people. In a large group it is ineffective. That's why it is sometimes called local. On the contrary, formal control is comprehensive; it operates throughout the country. He global, and it is always carried out by special people - agents of formal control. These are professionals, i.e. persons specially trained and paid for performing control functions. They are carriers social statuses and roles. These include judges, police officers, psychiatrists, social workers, etc. If in traditional society social control was based on unwritten rules, then in modern societies it is based on written norms; instructions, decrees, regulations, laws. Social control has gained institutional support .

Formal control, as we have already said, is exercised by such institutions of modern society as the courts, education, the army, production, the media, political parties, and the government. The school controls through grades, the government through the taxation system, and social assistance to the population, the state - with the help of the police, the secret service, state radio and television channels and the press.

Control methods , Depending on the sanctions applied, they are divided into:

· hard;

· soft;

· straight;

· indirect. [Appendix 2]

Conclusion

The role and significance of social control lies primarily in the fact that it makes a serious contribution to ensuring the reproduction of social relations and social structure and thereby plays a very important role in the stabilization and integration of the social system and the strengthening social order. Social control is aimed at making a habit of standards of behavior in certain situations that do not raise objections from a social group or the whole society. Basing its activities on the general recognition of the culture of a given society or group, on instilling its values ​​and norms in its members through education, social control is designed to ensure that human behavior corresponds to these values, norms and roles. But the role of social control in the prevention and suppression of social deviations, primarily the deviant behavior of people and their groups, is especially great, direct and visible.

Having considered social control as a social institution, examining its essence and forms, we can draw the following conclusions:

· Mechanisms of social control play a vital role in strengthening all institutions of society;

· In relation to society, social control performs two main functions: protective and stabilizing.

· The main purpose of social control is to maintain order and stability in society, as well as to ensure social reproduction in a direction corresponding to the development strategy chosen by a particular society;

· Thanks to the mechanisms of socialization, prescription, encouragement, selection and control, the social system maintains equilibrium.

Glossary

Deviation or deviant behavior(from lat. deviatio- evasion) – deviating from generally accepted norms social action, actions of people or their groups that lead to a violation of these norms and necessitate an appropriate response from a social group or society as a whole. In a broad sense, deviation includes any deviations in behavior from social norms - both positive (heroism, special hard work) and negative (crimes, violations of public order, moral norms). In a narrower sense (it is this sense that is addressed in this course work) is understood only as a negative deviation from established norms, both legal and moral.

Interiorization– (from fr. i interiorisation- transition from outside to inside, from lat. interior– internal) – formation internal structures human psyche through the assimilation of external social activities, appropriation of life experience, formation of mental functions and development in general. Any complex action, before becoming the property of the mind, must be realized externally. Thanks to interiorization, we can talk to ourselves and actually think without disturbing others.

Self-control – independent regulation by a person of his behavior, his motives and motivations, an integral part of the system of moral relations of society, which includes both various forms of society’s control over the behavior of its individual members, and everyone’s personal control over themselves. The mechanism of self-control covers beliefs, feelings, habits, gradually developing in the process of social life of an individual, a person’s self-esteem of his actions, motives, moral qualities (one of the forms of such self-esteem is conscience); self-education.

Self-awareness – a person’s isolation of himself from the objective world, awareness and assessment of his attitude to the world, himself as a person, his actions, thoughts and feelings, desires and interests.

Social control– a mechanism of self-regulation of society and social groups, ensuring their targeted influence on people’s behavior in order to strengthen order and stability. Social control is designed to guarantee given social values, norms and roles the behavior of a person or social group. It bases its activities on the general recognition of the culture of a given society, group and instilling its values ​​and norms in its members through the education of behavior patterns.

Literature used

1. Berger P. L. Invitation to sociology: A humanistic perspective. – M.: Aspect Press, 1996. – 168 p.

2. Kosyanov V.V. Sociology: exam answers. – Rostov n/d.: Phoenix, 2003. – 320 p.

3. Kravchenko A.I., Anurin V.F. Sociology: Textbook for universities. – St. Petersburg: Peter, 2003. – 432 p.

4. Latysheva V.V. Fundamentals of Sociology: Pupil for college students. – M.: Bustard, 2004. – 240 p.

5. Dictionary of ethics // edited by Kon I.S. – M.: Politizdat, 1981. – 430 p.

6. Tadevosyan E.V. Dictionary reference book on sociology and political science. – M.: Knowledge, 1996. – 273s.

7. Tadevosyan E.V. Sociology. Tutorial. – M.: Knowledge, 1998. – 272 p.

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Appendix 1

System of social control according to P. Berger

Appendix 2

Combination of formal control methods

We all live surrounded by people, sharing our joys and sorrows with them. But not everyone wants to obey social norms and rules. For a certain orderliness of society, the concept of “social control” was introduced. These new phenomena in society are very effective. We all remember the social shaming developed during the heyday of the USSR. When a person did not want to work or was a hooligan, he was taken on bail, but the whole society condemned him for such inappropriate behavior. And it worked! The man, perhaps not of his own free will, but began to change. As a result, the society achieved its goal. Social control was introduced for the same purpose - to streamline interpersonal and social relations.

Social control: concept, types, functions

A society can be called organized and relatively safe only if there are mechanisms of self-control of citizens and social control of the state. The more developed the first concept is, the less social surveillance will be required on the part of authorities. Self-control is the responsible behavior of an adult who has developed the skills of volitional effort over himself at the level of self-awareness, control over his behavior in accordance with generally accepted norms in society.

It is natural for children to act capriciously, impulsively, spontaneously. An adult has internal self-control so as not to create conflicts or other unfavorable situations for himself and for society. If a society consists of people with an underdeveloped sense of responsibility, then it needs formal types of social control to be introduced by special bodies. But we must not forget that constant harsh oppression gradually makes self-control less and less significant, and, as a result, society is degrading, since there are fewer and fewer people who are able to think responsibly and control their will.

What are the main types of public control?

Existing types social management behavior is divided into two large sections, which are called formal and informal.

The essence of formal control is the implementation of legislative and rational regulation government agencies management and supervision of citizen behavior. In case of violation of norms, the state applies sanctions.

Formal control was preceded by informal control, which still exists in society. Its essence lies in the self-organization of a certain social group, where the rules are not written, but are regulated by the opinions of group members, authoritative individuals, and elders.

How is formal control carried out?

Formal control has its roots in the historical period of formation of forms public organization, going beyond the simple, that is, state. Today, the state form of organization of society has reached such a level of development that such types of social control as formal control simply must be highly organized. The larger the state, the more difficult it is to organize public order. Formal control is the organization of order throughout the entire state, that is, it has a global scale. Its functions are carried out by special people who receive state wages(judges, police officers, psychiatrists). The developing social control in society and its types have led to the organization of entire institutions, structures and authorized bodies. These include the police, the prosecutor's office, courts, schools, the media and similar institutions.

Features of informal control

Informal management of behavior at the level of a large society is ineffective. It is localized and limited to the members of the group. For violation of the norms established in such social groups, punishment is applied, taking the form of threats or real actions: physical impact on the individual, rejection in communication, reproaches, ridicule, various types of censure... Informal types and forms of social control do not neglect sanctions in the form exclusion from the community, so-called ostracism. For a person to whom this group is important, such an action is very noticeable. He feels emptiness and hopelessness. This prompts him to take various actions to return to such a group or, conversely, to replace interests and reassess values.

How effective informal types and forms of social control and the level of its organization will depend on the degree of cohesion of members of a social group, unity in goals and opinions. Let's take, for example, a rural community of bygone times, the traditions of which are preserved in some places to this day - there were no clearly defined rules, but the preservation of rituals and various ceremonies educates social behavior, norms and a deep understanding of the need to comply with them.

Socialization as a form of control

In a traditional society with unwritten informal rules, the essence and types of social control differ significantly from a modern developed society, where all norms of individual behavior are strictly prescribed and enshrined in a set of laws. Sanctions in such a group of people are imposed in the form of fines, prison terms, administrative, disciplinary and criminal liability. To reduce violations of the law, the state, through its institutions and structures, carries out measures to socialize society - through education, cultural work, propaganda through the media, and so on.

Coercion of a person

If socialization methods do not work, we have to use types and methods of social control such as coercion. If an individual does not want to voluntarily submit, society forces him to do so by force. Coercion includes the main types of social control, which are described in the norms of each state, based on its norms and laws. Coercion can be local, preventive, for example at the place of work, using the basic laws of the state. It can also be carried out immediately without warning, using harsh forms of influence on a person. This coercive type of social control is psychological impact on the individual through psychiatric clinics using drug treatment.

Forms of human responsibility

If a person does not show responsibility in his work or behavior, the state takes on the functions of educating such a citizen using various methods. These methods are not always as humane as we would like. For example, surveillance is not a very humane form of instilling responsibility on the part of the state. It is carried out in different ways.

Supervision can be general, when the supervisory authority monitors the implementation general norms, without going into details, looks only at end result. It can also be detailed, when the controller agent monitors every detail, regulating the implementation of the necessary standards at every stage. State-wide supervision can evolve into forms where not only behavior is regulated, but also thoughts and private life. That is, the state takes forms of total control, fosters denunciation, applies censorship, surveillance and other methods.

In a developed civil democratic society, social control (types of sanctions) is not total. Citizens are taught responsible behavior that does not require coercion. Responsibility can be political, moral, legal, financial. Group and collective responsibility, bound by cultural values, traditions and norms, is very important. When a person is in a team, he has a desire to fit in with a significant group of people. Without noticing, he changes, trying to imitate the members of the team. Such a change in behavior does not imply pressure and violent influence on the individual.

Implementation of internal control

Internal behavior management implies the concept and types of social control that regulate measures aimed at effective implementation by citizens structural divisions tasks assigned to them. Thus, an audit and control body is formed that inspects the financial part, economic and job descriptions, compliance with sanitary and epidemiological standards and the like.

On the other hand, under internal control understand human responsibility. A well-mannered and responsible person will not allow himself to commit offenses or any actions that are contrary to the basic norms of society. Self-control is developed in childhood. But also, with the help of certain methods, a person can be encouraged to take responsibility and regulate his behavior, emotions, words and actions.

What are the main functions of social control?

Internal social control, types, functions by which it is characterized are controllability of powers to avoid abuse in the workplace, verification of document flow and safety of material assets. As for the functions of social control in general, they can be divided into:

1. Regulatory.
2. Protective.
3. Stabilizing.

Regulatory – ensures the regulation of relations and their management at all stages of development of society and its levels. Protective – aims to protect all traditional values ​​accepted in society, to stop all attempts to break and destroy these traditions. Stabilizing – takes measures to maintain public order in accordance with the norms adopted by law, predicts the behavior of individuals and social groups, preventing actions aimed at destabilizing public order.

A society without values ​​is doomed to destruction. This is what unites and expresses the goals and aspirations of society and its individual citizens. Values ​​have their own classification and hierarchy.

• spiritual;
• material;
• economic;
• political;
• social.

According to direction:

• integrating;
• differentiating;
• approved;
• denied.

They are also divided according to needs and type of civilization. In general, we can say that values ​​are classified into:

• formed under the influence of traditions and modernity;
• primary basic and secondary;
• expressing the ideals of society (terminal);
• expressing tools for achieving a goal (instrumental).

Whatever type of value it is main task– to be a measure of the level of socialization of society and compliance with the laws and behavioral norms adopted in it. In the USSR, oddly enough, values ​​were based on the principles of the Bible. The person was condemned for promiscuity, disrespect towards parents, theft, and envy. After the massive revolutions of freedom, the so-called sexual revolutions, the values ​​of society were turned upside down. The institution of family has lost its former significance, children began to show less respect for their parents. Without a basis, it is difficult to instill responsibility and control the correct behavior of people. Now social control no longer performs an educational function, but a punitive one.

The Role of Social Control Agents

In modern society, there are certain people - agents who exercise social control. These people have undergone special training to properly organize society. Agents of social control are police officers, doctors (psychiatrists), judges, social workers. They do not work with enthusiasm, but receive a certain payment for their work. Modern society It is difficult to imagine without these people, since they are a kind of guarantors of previously adopted decrees, instructions, laws and regulations of the legislative branch of the state.

Social control today is not based on the principle “grandmother said so”; with the loss of the authority of elders, other control methods have appeared, which are determined by the state. On at the moment society is organized by institutions. These institutions are varied:

• police;
• prosecutor's office;
• places of detention;
• media;
• school;
• social services.

These bodies are authorized by the state to preserve, regulate and improve public order through the application of punitive or educational methods to specific people. Naturally, all these methods are used strictly according to the instructions of higher authorities. If a person or group of people does not listen to the recommendations or decisions of agents of social control, sanctions are applied to them: criminal punishment, disciplinary or administrative liability.

The term “social control” was first introduced by a French sociologist. He proposed to consider it one of the most important. Subsequently, R. Park, E. Ross, A. Lapierre developed a whole theory, according to which it was a necessary means for ensuring that a person assimilates the elements of the culture that has developed in society.

Social control is a mechanism that exists to maintain order in society, aimed at preventing unwanted, deviant behavior and punishing them for it. Carried out through regulatory regulation.

The most important condition for the functioning of a social system is the predictability of people's actions and behavior. If it is not fulfilled, then its disintegration will occur. For the stability of the system, society uses various means, which include social control, which performs a protective and stabilizing function.

It has a structure and consists of sanctions. The first contain prescriptions, certain models of behavior in society (they indicate what people should do, think, say and feel). They are divided into legal (enshrined in laws, containing sanctions for their violation) and (expressed in the form of public opinion, the main instrument of influence is general censure or approval).

Norms are classified by scale into those that exist in small, large groups and in society as a whole. General ones include traditions, customs, etiquette, laws, morals, etc. Norms are the rights and responsibilities of a person in relation to others, the fulfillment of which is expected of him by others. They have strictly defined boundaries. These usually include social customs and traditions, manners, etiquette, group habits, taboos, social mores, and laws.

To regulate a person’s behavior, there are sanctions, with the help of which his “correct actions” are encouraged, and penalties are applied for violations. They can be very diverse, ranging from a disapproving look to imprisonment and even the death penalty. Sanctions are divided into 4 types: negative (punishments), positive (incentives), formal (various awards, bonuses, certificates, scholarships, fines, imprisonment, etc.), informal (approval, praise, compliment, verbal reprimand, insulting tone).

Types of social control

External (formal and informal) and internal.

Formal control is exercised by government agencies, social and political organizations, and the media, based on official condemnation or approval and operating throughout the entire state. At the same time, the rules governing human activity are contained in laws, regulations, various instructions and orders. Formal social control is aimed at maintaining the existing order and respect for laws with the help of representatives of government agencies. Informal is based on the condemnation or approval of actions by friends, relatives, neighbors, colleagues, and so on. It is expressed in the form of traditions, customs, and also through the media.

Internal social control involves a person regulating his behavior independently, based on generally accepted norms. It manifests itself in the form of emotional experiences, feelings of guilt and, in general, attitudes towards committed actions. The main elements of self-control are conscience, will and consciousness.

Indirect (based on identification with a law-abiding group) and direct social control, which is based on accessibility in various ways satisfying needs and achieving goals alternative to immoral or illegal ones.