Musical art of classicism of the 18th century. Vienna Classical School Classicism Classicism(from Latin classicus exemplary), artistic style and aesthetic direction in European literature and art of the 17th and early 19th centuries, one of the important features of which was the appeal to the images and forms of ancient literature and art as an ideal aesthetic standard. There are two historical stages in the development of classicism. Growing out of Renaissance art 17th century classicism developed simultaneously with the Baroque, partly in struggle, partly in interaction with it, and during this period it received its greatest development in France. Classicism of the 17th century is characterized by clear, harmonious images. Order, rationality. The primacy of duty and reason in people's lives.
Pierre Corneille
Jean-Baptiste Racine
Nicolas Poussin
Claude Lorrain
Jean-Baptiste
Lully
18th century classicism The classicism of the 18th century is completely different. The desire for the ideal, reasonable, harmonious remained, but was filled with new content. It is no coincidence that 18 is called the “Era of Enlightenment.” What was reasonable was now seen, first of all, in the equality of people. The main theme of 18th century classicism was the heroic act of man, the willingness to sacrifice himself sacrifice for friendship, for love, for the benefit of others. Late classicism, associated with the Enlightenment, from approximately the middle of the 18th to the beginning of the 19th century, is associated primarily with the Viennese classical school, the prominent representatives of which areFranz Joseph Haydn
Ludwig Wang
Beethoven
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Franz Joseph Haydn (March 31, 1732 - May 31, 1809) - Austrian composer, representative of the Viennese classical school, one of the founders of such musical genres as the symphony and string quartet. Creator of the melody that later formed the basis of the anthems of Germany and Austria-Hungary “Here, in the building of the University of Vienna, the music of J. Haydn was heard more than once” ⍟ I.Goethe I.Goethe How everyone rejoices, sings and rings! The valley is in bloom, the zenith is on fire! Every leaf on a branch trembles, The cheerful whistle does not stop in the groves. How to contain this joy in your chest! – Watch and listen! Breathe and live! “The world of Haydn's music is very rich. The versatility of Haydn’s music, his ability to “make jokes and shock, cause laughter and deeply touch” was highly appreciated by W. A. Mozart. Haydn and Mozart had many years of friendship and mutual understanding. Mozart considered himselfa student of Haydn and treated him with the deepest respect and love, calling him father, since Haydn was 24 years older than Mozart.”
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart full name Johann Chrysostom Wolfgang Theophilus Mozart (January 27, 1756, Salzburg - December 5, 1791, Vienna) - Austrian composer, band master, pianist, violinist, clave player, organist. According to contemporaries, he had a phenomenal ear for music, memory and the ability to improvise. “The premieres of many of Mozart’s operas took place here, including “The Abduction from the Seraglio”, “Don Giovanni”, “The Magic Flute”, etc. On May 1, 1786, the premiere of “The Marriage of Figaro” was held at the Burg Theater with unprecedented success. ① ② I.Goethe I.Goethe The lily of the valley finds a shady forest, The bird strives into the expanse of heaven. And I only need your love, She gives me joy and life. My friend, for happiness, loving, live, - You will find happiness in your love! Mozart believed that “in opera, poetry should be the obedient daughter of music.” While Gluck also tried to subordinate the music to dramatic action. But one should not think that Mozart did not attach great importance to the libretto of the opera. On the contrary: opera music and stage action are in complete unity. An innovative achievement in opera is the mastery of musicalcharacter characteristics. In Mozart, living people lived and suffered on stage with unique character traits conveyed in music.
Each character in the opera has its own character, expressed in music. And this character is not set once and for all, but develops as it approaches the finale.
The music conveys the variability of mood
each character in the opera. Everyone, even
minor characters
has its own arias, sonorous, melodic,
easy to remember.
One day, shortly before Mozart’s death, a young man of about sixteen came to him and improvised for a long time in his presence. “Pay attention to this young man,” Mozart said after he left. “He will someday make everyone talk about himself.” The young man's name was Ludwig van Beethoven. Ludwig van Beethoven - baptized December 17, 1770, Bonn, Westphalia - March 26, 1827, Vienna, Archduchy of Austria) - German composer and pianist, representative of the “Viennese classical school”. Beethoven is a key figure in Western classical music in the period between classicism and romanticism, one of the most respected and performed composers in the world He wrote in all genres that existed in his time, including opera, music for dramatic performances, and choral works. The most significant in his legacy are considered to be instrumental works: piano, violin and cello sonatas, concertos for piano, violin, quartets, overtures, symphonies. Beethoven's work had a significant impact on symphony in the 19th and 20th centuries. The symphony, which was supposed to be called "Buonaparte", became known as "Eroica". On April 7, 1805, this symphony premiered at the Curtnerton TheaterKartnertor
theater in Vienna
Title page of the "Eroic" Symphony
F. Schiller F. Schiller No, there is a limit to the violence of tyrants! When rights are brutally violated And the burden is unbearable, to heaven The oppressed call out fearlessly. There he finds confirmation of rights, Which are inalienable and indestructible, How the stars shine for humanity. That old time will return again, When equality reigned everywhere. But if all means have been tried, Then the sword that strikes remains. We have the right to the highest blessings Defend. We stand for our Motherland, We stand for our wives and children! ⍟1 of 11
Presentation - Administrative (classical) school of management
Text of this presentation
Administrative (classical) school of management
Completed by 4th year students of group B Profile “Pre-school education” Efremova Alina Ilyina Tatyana Mudarisova Ekaterina Vasilyeva Evgenia
Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education “Chuvash State Pedagogical University named after. I.Ya.Yakovleva Faculty of Preschool and Correctional Pedagogy and Psychology Department of Preschool Education and Service
Cheboksary 2016
Founder of the school
Henri Fayol - founder of the administrative school
Henri Fayol was born in a suburb of Istanbul, Turkey on July 29, 1841 - died in November 1925 in Paris. Fayol created and headed the Center for Administrative Research, which was responsible for carrying out research orders in various areas of economic activity (tobacco industry, postal and telegraph department). Fayol was awarded the Order of the Legion of Honor and other state awards, and had high scientific titles. Fayol is considered the founder of the classical school. In his research, he proceeded not from American, but from European, in particular French, experience in organizing and managing production. He paid his main attention directly to the management process itself, which he viewed as an administrative function designed to assist administrative personnel in achieving the goals of the organization. Fayol's main work is his work “General and Industrial Management,” written in 1916 and republished in the USSR (1923) with a foreword by A. K. Gastev. In this book, he summarized management experience and created a logically coherent systematic theory of management. it was published several years before the publication of Frederick Winslow Taylor's theory of scientific management.
Fayol's concept was based on the proposition that in every enterprise there are two organisms: material and social. The first includes labor itself, the means of labor and objects of labor in their totality; by the second, he meant the relationships of people in the labor process. These relationships became the subject of Fayol’s research, i.e. he deliberately limited the scope of his research. Fayol tried to substantiate the need and possibility of creating a special science of people management as part of the general doctrine of enterprise management. Fayol had extensive experience working in the top management of an organization. Therefore, his research was aimed at increasing the efficiency of the entire organization. Fayol believed that the source of the effectiveness of a management system is the management procedures applied by the administration. At the same time, he argued that the main method of achieving efficiency is the correct application of management principles (rules).
Contributions to the theory of management development by Henri Fayol
Henri Fayol made a major contribution to management theory by developing a “general approach” to administration and formulating some principles of administrative theory. It defines functions, principles and controls. Fayol's concept was based on the proposition that in every enterprise there are two organisms: material and social. The first includes labor itself, the means of labor and objects of labor in their totality; by the second, he meant the relationships of people in the labor process. These relationships became the subject of Fayol’s research, i.e. he deliberately limited the scope of his research. Fayol argued that administrative functions exist at any level of the organization and are performed even by the workers themselves, but the higher the level of the managerial hierarchy, the higher the administrative responsibility. He made attempts to formulate requirements for the professional training of workers, foremen, shop managers, directors and senior managers. Management is generated by a developed market economy; it arose in the sphere of private enterprise, rather than state or non-profit management. Its appearance in the 20th century symbolized the weakening role of the state in regulating the economy. On the contrary, for France, which was more backward at that time, a country where the administrative institutions of feudalism were strong for a long time, where the capitalist economy was nurtured by the state itself, management inevitably had a different shade.
Another reason is that administrative activities constituted only part of management for Fayol. Management itself was a much broader area. To manage, Fayol argued, means to lead an enterprise towards its goal, extracting opportunities from all available resources. But leading to the goal means maneuvering in the product sales market, monitoring market conditions and advertising, increasing technical capacity and controlling the turnover of capital. Administration, according to Fayol, includes six main groups of management operations present in all industrial enterprises: technical and technological (production, manufacturing, processing); commercial (purchase, sale, exchange); financial (attracting capital and effectively managing it); security (protection of property and individuals); accounting (inventory, balance sheets, production costs, statistics); administrative (foresight, organization, management, coordination and control).
The contribution of representatives of the administrative school to the development of management science.
Henri Fayol is a French scientist, the “father” of management. He made a huge contribution to the development of management as a science. Developed a number of universal management principles. 1916 – work “General and industrial management”. Fourteen principles according to Henri Fayol: 1. Division of labor - specialization of work necessary for the effective use of labor (by reducing the number of goals to which the attention and efforts of the worker are directed). 2. Authority and responsibility - each employee must be delegated sufficient authority to be responsible for the performance of the work. 3. Discipline - workers must obey the terms of the agreement between them and the head of the enterprise, managers must apply fair sanctions to violators of discipline. 4. Unity of command - the employee receives orders and reports to only one immediate superior. 5. Unity of actions - all actions that have the same goal must be combined into groups and carried out according to a single plan. 6. Subordination of personal interests - the interests of the organization take precedence over the interests of individuals. 7. Personnel remuneration – employees receiving fair remuneration for their work. 8. Centralization is the natural order in an organization that has a control center. The best results are achieved with the right proportion between centralization and decentralization. Authority (power) must be delegated in proportion to responsibility. 9. Scalar chain – an unbroken chain of commands through which all orders are transmitted and communications are carried out between all levels of the hierarchy (“chain of superiors”). 10. Order – a workplace for each employee and each employee at his own workplace. 11. Fairness – established rules and agreements must be enforced fairly at all levels of the scalar chain. 12. Stability of personnel - setting employees to be loyal to the organization and long-term work, since high turnover reduces efficiency. 13. Initiative – encouraging employees to develop independent judgments within the boundaries of the powers delegated to them and the work performed. 14. Corporate spirit - harmony of interests of personnel and the organization ensures unity of effort (“there is strength in unity”).
Fayol's initial point of view on management was that he considered it obligatory in any field of human activity: in production, business, politics, government, religion, in the family. The fact that management was not taught in schools and universities, as was the case with the teaching of technical sciences, was, according to Fayol, the result of the lack of management theory. Fayol tried to define the theory of management, which he considered as a combination of principles, rules and methods of management, developed and tested by universal work experience. Since practice is much richer than theory, a discrepancy arises between them. This was the reason for the difficulties that arose in further theoretical generalizations of management and its subsequent teaching.
In 1908, in a report at the anniversary meeting of the Society of Mining Industries, Fayol identified the main principles of management; - centralization and decentralization of power. This is a matter of measure. You just need to know their optimal ratio, which best suits the interests of the enterprise; - the essence of the employee. Each employee, consciously or unconsciously, is part of the organization and puts his soul into it; - unity of leadership. There must be one leader and one plan of action to achieve a common goal; - order. Each person has his place and everyone in his place; - unity of staff. There is strength in unity.
Fayol's assessment of the qualities that a manager needs is also of interest. He arranged them in this order: - physical qualities (health, strength, speech); - mental qualities (ability to understand and study, ability to evaluate, adaptation); - moral qualities (energy, initiative, responsibility, loyalty, tact, dignity); - general education (knowledge of issues related not only to the functions performed); - special knowledge (technical, commercial, financial, managerial and other knowledge directly related to the position held); - work experience (knowledge gained on the basis of previous activities).
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F. Quesnay (1694-1774)
Representatives of classical political economy in France in the 18th century. were François Quesnay and Anne Robert Jacques Turgot. They transferred the question of the origin of social wealth from the sphere of circulation to the sphere of production. At the same time, they limited the latter only to agriculture, believing that wealth was created only in this industry.
A. Turgot (1727-1781).
Therefore, this direction in the development of economic thought was called the school
physiocrats
(the term is derived from the Greek words “nature” and “power”).
Adam Smith (1723-1790)
The outstanding English economist Adam Smith went down in history as the “Prophet of free competition”. His greatest merit can be considered that in the world of economics he discerned a natural self-regulating order discovered by Newton in the physical sublunary world. The main idea in the teachings of A. Smith is the idea of liberalism, minimal government intervention in the economy, market self-regulation based on free prices that develop depending on supply and demand. The main work of his life, “An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations” (1776), had a tremendous influence on the subsequent century. Economic life, according to Smith, is subject to objective laws that do not depend on the will and conscious aspirations of people. The starting point of his entire study is the problem of the division of labor, which binds “egoistic individuals” into a single society. After examining this problem, he proceeds to expound on the origin and use of money. Smith made a significant contribution to the theory of value, to the doctrine of income, of productive and unproductive labor, of capital and reproduction, and of the economic policy of the state.
CLASSICAL POLITICAL ECONOMY
Classical political economy is not a homogeneous, uniform teaching and contains a number of directions, the authors of which considered certain aspects of economic life from their own, original point of view. The classical school laid the foundations for the entire diversity of modern economic views.
Jean Baptiste Say (1767-1832) began to develop another tradition of interpretation of value, laid down by A. Smith - the theory of factors of production. He was the first of the classics to clearly and unambiguously formulate the idea that the value of a commodity is equal to the sum of wages, profit and rent, i.e. the amount of income of the owners of production factors used in the manufacture of a given product.
The most important contribution made by the classical scholar Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-1834) to economics was his development of the “theory of population,” in which he linked economic and demographic factors. Moreover, in his formulation of this question, the dependence turns out to be two-way: just as the economy affects changes in the population, so the size of the population affects the economy.
J. Sismondi (1773-1842). For him, the whole interest of political economy from a theoretical point of view came down to explaining crises, and from a practical point of view - to finding measures to prevent them and improve the situation of workers. He thus becomes the head of a whole series of economists, whose activities did not stop throughout the 19th century. Not being socialists, but not blinded by the vices of the liberal regime, these writers were looking for a middle path in which, while correcting the abuses of freedom, they would not sacrifice their principles.
CLASSICAL POLITICAL ECONOMY
The formation and development of classical political economy took place against the background of serious changes in the economic and social life of society. Traditional feudal relations were replaced by a new economy - a market economy, which in the initial stages of its development was characterized by deep social stratification of society.
The abuses in factories in the first half of the 19th century have been described thousands of times: the exploitation of children of all ages in the most unhealthy and cruel conditions, the almost endless working hours of women and adult workers, starvation wages, ignorance, rudeness, disease and the vices that arise in such deplorable conditions. In England, doctors' reports, House of Commons questionnaires, Robert Owen's speeches and revelations aroused the indignation of public opinion.
The requirement to limit the labor of children in cotton spinning mills since 1819 is the first timid step in the field of labor legislation. J.B. Say, traveling through England in 1815, stated that the worker in England, despite the fact that he has a family, and despite efforts often worthy of the highest praise, can earn only three-quarters, and sometimes only half of his expenses.
WORK
Ford Madox Brown, England (1821-1893)
Artistic
Manchester
CLASSICAL POLITICAL ECONOMY
Ricardo (1772-1823).
The most prominent economist of the era of the industrial revolution in England was D. Ricardo. He formulated a series of economic laws that became part of the treasury of political economy. The central place in the teachings of D. Ricardo is occupied by the theories of value and money, wages and profits, land rent, the doctrine of capital and reproduction.
Paul Samuelson, in his economics textbook, rates David Ricardo as a key figure of the 19th century: "He was one of the lucky ones. Classical, neoclassical and post-Keynesian scholars all trace their ancestry to his circle. The same can be said of the Marxist socialists." .
Summing up the consideration of the classical school, it should be noted that the main object of research here is production as such, regardless of its sectoral characteristics, as well as the distribution of benefits. Its outstanding representatives put forward and substantiated a system of concepts and categories that represent a scientific reflection of many economic processes.
MARXISM
Karl Marx 1818 - 1883
The merit of the German philosopher and economist K. Marx lies not only in his development of the original teaching - theory of surplus value and the law of concentration (automatic expropriation), but also in the fact that his works became the starting point for modern radical political economy (XX century).
In addition, his economic theory served in the 20th century as one of the components of the social ideology of socialist countries with a planned economy, thus contributing to fundamental changes in both the economic and general history of mankind in this century.
Karl Marx was born in Trier (Germany) into the family of a lawyer. During the period of revolutionary events in Europe 1848 - 1849, he actively participated in the work of the international organization “Union of Communists” and, together with Engels, wrote its program “Manifesto of the Communist Party” (1848)
IN 1867 Marx’s main work, “Capital” (vol. 1), was published, which provides an analysis of the development of capitalism and its historical limits.; Marx did not complete work on the following volumes; Engels prepared them for publication (vol. 2, 1885; vol. 3, 1894).
IN In the last years of his life, Marx actively participated in the formation of proletarian parties. Marx developed the principles of a materialist understanding of history (historical materialism), the theory of surplus value, studied the development of capitalism and put forward the position of the inevitability of its death and the transition to communism as a result of the proletarian revolution. Marx's ideas had a significant influence on social thought and the history of society in the late 19th and 20th centuries.
The successor to the work of Marx and Engels was V.I. Lenin, who developed Marxist teaching in new historical conditions.
MARGINALISM
In the 1870s, economics experienced a “Marginalist Revolution,” which led to dramatic methodological and theoretical shifts. It is from this moment that we can consider the beginning of modern economic analysis. Among the most important elements marginalism as a direction in economics the following should be highlighted:
Using marginal (i.e. incremental) values. The word “marginalism” itself comes from the Latin margo, which means edge, limit. Marginalists are using categories for the first time - marginal utility And ultimate performance.
Static. Marginalists have lost interest in the “laws of motion” of capitalism, which were the concern of the classics. The focus of economic research after the Marginalist Revolution shifted to the study of the use of scarce resources to satisfy the needs of people at a given time.
Subjectivism, i.e. an approach in which all economic phenomena are studied and assessed from the point of view of an individual economic entity. It is not for nothing that marginalism is sometimes called a subjective school of economics.
The marginalist direction of economic thought is usually divided into two schools due to differences in methodology - Austrian and Lauzan.
Austrian school |
Lozansky school |
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Currently, marginalism (mainly on the basis of the Lauzan school), due to the addition of components of the classical school, has been transformed into “NEOCLASICS (NEOCLASSICAL SCHOOL)”.
ECONOMIC SCIENCE
from ancient times to the end of the 19th century
Classical political economy
Adam Smith, Jean B. Say, David Ricardo, Robert Malthus...
PHYSIOCRATS
F. Quesnay, A Turgot
Mercantilism
Atuan de Montchretien
Medieval thinkers
Thomas Aquinas, William of Ockham
Saving
Aristotle, Antisthenes, Plato
NEOCLASSICAL SCHOOL
Currently, marginalism, due to the addition of components of the classical school, has been transformed into “NEOCLASICS (NEOCLASSICAL SCHOOL)”. Prominent representatives of which are: Alfred Marshall and Joseph Schumpeter.
A. Marshall. Main work: “Principles of Economic Science” (1890). The fact that |
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The neoclassical school is a synthesis of the ideas of (early) marginalism and classical |
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school, looks especially obvious when we turn to the works of recognized |
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the founder of the neoclassical school, English economist A. Marshall. |
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"Principles of Economic Science" is written in the traditional manner of the classics - with |
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long digressions, rich factual material, discussions on social |
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and moral themes. |
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The subject of economic science, from the point of view of A. Marshall, is those incentives |
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motives that guide a person in his economic activities. These motives |
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amenable to quantitative measurement: the strength of a particular stimulus that makes |
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person to take some action is equal to the monetary payment required for the person |
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performed this action. |
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Joseph Schumpeter, economist and sociologist. Born in Austria-Hungary, since 1932 in the USA. Essays |
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on problems of the economic cycle, the history of economic doctrines. Considered history |
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political economy as a process of upward development of analytical apparatus and methods |
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the central place in which is given to the entrepreneurial function. Suggested |
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dynamic concept of the cycle, where cyclicity is considered as a pattern |
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economic growth. |
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The fundamental problem of any economic system, said Schumpeter, is |
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achieving and maintaining balance. Within the model, all firms are in a state |
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stable equilibrium, and income equals costs. Profit and interest are zero, prices |
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are formed on the basis of average cost, economic resources are fully utilized. |
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Schumpeter Joseph |
This model introduces a new production function corresponding to the new |
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the relationship between costs and output. Introduction of a new function |
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carried out by an Innovator seeking to obtain greater profits than they can give |
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the usual ways. |
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MONETARISM
Monetarism is considered one of the directions of neoclassical economic thought. It originates in the mid-1950s in the USA. One of the recognized founders and leaders of monetarism is a representative of the so-called Chicago School, Milton Friedman.
Initially, monetarism arose as a separate branch of experimental research in the field of monetary circulation, namely, as an analysis of the demand for money. Subsequently, it evolved, covering an increasingly wider range of economic issues. Ultimately, by the mid-1970s, it turned into a respectable doctrine, the recipes of which began to be used by the governments of many capitalist countries.
In theoretical terms, monetarism, on the one hand, is based on certain provisions of the neoclassical synthesis (for example, the theory of property), and on the other, is a continuation of the pre-Keynesian neoclassical quantity theory of money.
Friedman 1912-
The main works of M. Friedman: “Research in the field of the quantitative theory of money” (1956); M. Friedman, A. Schwartz "Monetary history of the United States, 1867 - 1960" (1963).
All goods acquired and stored by an economic entity can be represented in the form of its assets. Their combination forms a portfolio of assets. Money is an asset along with other goods.
Assets are held by an individual either because they generate monetary income (financial assets: stocks, bonds), or because they have a certain utility as such (non-financial assets: for example, durable consumer goods, capital goods), or because that they provide convenience, liquidity and security (money).
The individual's task is to allocate his available resources (wealth) in such a way as to maximize his utility. The new quantitative theory of money is interested, first of all, in the volume of funds stored in monetary (liquid) form, i.e., in other words, the demand for money.
The demand for money is determined by three main groups of factors: a) the total wealth of the economic entity; b) the costs and benefits associated with various forms of storing wealth; c) the individual's preferences regarding various forms of storing wealth.
Slide 2
2.4.3. The law of markets and the theory of “three factors of production” by J.B. Say. 2.4.1. Methodological principles and basic provisions of the theory of K. Marx. 2.4.2. Theories of T. Malthus. 2.4.4. Historical school in Germany - as an alternative to the classics.
Slide 3
K. Marx (1818-1883) K. Marx Lawyer by training, journalist and professional revolutionary “Marxism is too valuable to be left to Marxists alone” P. Samuelson
Slide 4
Historical conditions for the emergence of Marxism Victory of capitalism in Europe (40s of the 19th century) Spontaneous workers' revolts Changes in the class structure of society Main classes: bourgeoisie proletariat 1831 - revolt of Lyon weavers in France, 30-40s. - Chartist movement in England, 1840 - uprising of Silesian weavers in Germany.
Slide 5
Three sources of Marxism
Utopian socialism (Saint-Simon, Fourier, Owen) Classical bourgeois political economy (Smith and Ricardo) German philosophy (Hegel and Feuerbach)
Slide 6
Dialectical materialism Subject and method of Marxism Subject Method Analysis of the sphere of production, production relations Identification of the law of movement and death of capitalism. The study of relationships between people and the property relations that determine them.
Slide 7
“Sketches for a Critique of Political Economy” (1843) “The Holy Family, or Critique of Critical Criticism” (1844) “The Poverty of Philosophy” (1847) The main works of K. Marx and F. Engels “Towards a Critique of Political Economy” (1859) “Capital” (1867-1905) "Critique of the Gotha Program" (1875)
Slide 8
Analysis of the capital production process Subject “The best thing in my book: the dual nature of labor, the study of surplus value regardless of its special forms.” K. Marx Characteristics of “Capital” Volume I (1867)
Slide 9
Characteristics of “Capital” (Volume I)
The foundations of the labor theory of value are outlined. The process of production of surplus value is analyzed. The essence and basic forms of wages are characterized. The process of accumulation of capital is analyzed. The operation of the law of value is shown. The historical process of development of exchange and forms of value is analyzed. The basic economic law of capitalism, the law of surplus value, is formulated. K. Marx showed how the “dazzling” monetary form appeared and the “secret” of money was revealed. “The economic system of K. Marx is distinguished by its iron logic; if you accept the starting point, then you are forced to agree with the conceptual conclusions.” Böhm-Bawerk
Slide 10
Analysis of the process of circulation of capital Subject Characteristics of “Capital” Volume II (1885)
Slide 11
Characteristics of “Capital” (Volume II)
The reproduction of individual capital is analyzed; the conditions for the unimpeded realization of social capital are formulated; the problem of reproduction and circulation of all social capital is analyzed; the doctrine of fixed and working capital is being developed; the stages of capital movement are shown: monetary productive commodity; the speed of capital turnover; Schemes of expanded reproduction - the first model of economic growth
Slide 12
Analysis of production and circulation taken as a whole Subject Characteristics of “Capital” Volume III (1894) “... in the influence of different capitals on each other, in competition and in the everyday consciousness of the agents of production themselves.” K. Marx
Slide 13
Characteristics of “Capital” (Volume III)
The problem of combining the action of the law of value with obtaining an equal rate of profit on capital is solved. A critique of the “triune formula” is given. The doctrine of absolute rent is created and the source of differential rent is clarified. The distribution of profit between groups of capitalists and the forms of its manifestation are examined. The concept of inter-industry competition is considered: entrepreneurial income, interest, rent. Profit is a creation of capital. Rent - land Wages are determined by labor
Slide 14
Characteristics of “Capital” Volume IV (1905) Provides a complete picture of the development of bourgeois political economy from its inception to its transformation into petty-bourgeois
Slide 15
Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-1834) T. Malthus Student of A. Smith, friend of D. Ricardo Defender of the interests of the agricultural aristocracy Priest, professor of the department of modern history and political economy of the College of the East India Company Born in England, in the family of a landowner 2.4.2. Theories of T. Malthus.
Slide 16
The main works of T. Malthus
“An Essay on the Law of Population in Connection with the Future Improvement of Society” (1798) “A Study on the Nature and Increase of Rent” (1815) “Principles of Political Economy” (1820)
Slide 17
Theoretical provisions of T. Malthus
Cost and distribution of income Implementation of the Law of Population Denied the equality of supply and demand, pointed to ways to increase demand Proponent of the theory of production costs The population is surplus compared to the goods of life it needs Productive labor Labor in the sphere of material production
Slide 18
J. Say Author of theories: subjective utility, three factors of production and sales. Economist and entrepreneur Born in Lyon, in the family of a merchant 2.4.3. The law of markets and the theory of “three factors of production” by J.B. Say. Commentator and systematizer of A. Smith's ideas Representative of the French bourgeoisie Member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences Jean Baptiste Say (1767-1832)
Slide 19
Works by J.B. Say
“A Treatise of Political Economy, or a Simple Statement of the Way in which Wealth is Generated, Distributed, and Consumed” (1803) “Catechism of Political Economy” (1815) “Course of Political Economy” (6 volumes) (1828-1830)
Slide 20
2.4.3. The law of markets and the theory of “three factors of production” by J.B. Say. “Say’s Law” served as the basis for the neoclassical direction in political economy: Any sale of a product is at the same time a purchase, so the sales process must be carried out uninterrupted. “The theory of three factors”: Value (utility) is created - by labor, capital, land. Conclusions: There cannot be general overproduction, so it is necessary to expand production. The prosperity of one industry is favorable for the prosperity of others. He advocated free trade and condemned protectionism. He demanded a “cheap state” and its minimal intervention in the economy. Labor creates wages Capital creates profit Land creates rent
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Classical school of management.
Prepared
Students of grade 10-B
EML
Taran Christina
Strelnikova Alina
Introduction
The classical or administrative school in management occupies the period of time from 1920 to 1950. The founder of this school is considered to be Henri Fayol, a French mining engineer, an outstanding manager-practitioner, one of the founders of management theory.
The goal of the classical school was to create universal principles of management.
The authors who wrote about scientific management mainly devoted their research to what is called production management. They were engaged in improving efficiency at a level below management. With the emergence of the administrative school, specialists began to constantly develop approaches to improving the management of the organization as a whole.
The classical school, like those who wrote about scientific management, was not very concerned with the social aspects of management. Moreover, their work was largely based on personal observations rather than based on scientific methodology. The "classics" tried to look at organizations from a broad perspective, trying to determine the general characteristics and patterns of organizations. The goal of the classical school was to create universal principles of management. In doing so, she proceeded from the idea that following these principles would undoubtedly lead the organization to success.
These principles covered two main aspects. One of them was the development of a rational management system for the organization. By defining the core functions of a business, the classical theorists were confident that they could determine the best way to divide an organization into departments or work groups. Traditionally, these functions have been finance, production and marketing. The definition of the main management functions was closely related to this. Fayol's main contribution to management theory was that he viewed management as a universal process consisting of several interrelated functions such as planning and organization. In the next section of this chapter we will look in more detail at the actual control functions.
The second category of classical principles concerned the construction of the organization's structure and employee management. An example is the principle of unity of command, according to which a person should receive orders from only one superior and obey only him alone.
Historical background
At different stages of world history, there were large state entities, for example, Macedonia, Persia, the Roman Empire, etc. Over the years, the management of such entities became more clear and complex, and the entities themselves became stronger and more stable. For example, the army of the Roman Empire had a well-developed structure of management, planning and perfect discipline. Its legions easily defeated the poorly organized armies of Europe and the Middle East. The conquered territories were placed under the control of governors subordinate to Rome. Roads were built to improve the connection between the outskirts and Rome, quickly collect taxes in favor of the emperor, and, if necessary, quickly move legions to the outlying provinces if local residents or the administration rebelled against Roman rule.
Practical management experience was studied:
F. Engels K. Marx R. Owen
R. Babbage
At the end of the 19th century, the economic situation in the most developed countries was unfavorable. The emergence of new machines, internal combustion engines, high-speed metalworking machines and other equipment did not give the expected results in the form of an increase in labor productivity. Concentration and specialization of production did not lead to an increase in profit on invested capital. Scientists were involved in studying the reasons for this situation. Thus, at the turn of the century, the scientific development of management took place.
Basic principles of the classical school of management
The classical school includes scientific management and administrative approach. The essence of scientific management was outlined in the works of F. Taylor, F. Gilbert, L. Gilbert, G. Gantt, M. Weber, S. Parkinson, G. Ford and others. They believed that, using observations, measurements, logic and analysis , it is possible to improve many manual labor operations, achieving their more efficient performance, analyzed the content of the work and identified its main components. Based on the information received, representatives of scientific management changed work procedures to eliminate unnecessary unproductive movements, using standard procedures and equipment, sought to increase work efficiency, while achieving significant results.
Scientific management also took into account the human factor. It was assumed that there would be material incentives to increase labor productivity and production volumes. The possibility of rest and inevitable interruptions in production was also provided for. As a result, it became possible to set reasonable production standards and pay extra to those who exceeded them. The authors of works on scientific management also recognized the importance of selecting people who would be physically and intellectually suited to the work being performed, and emphasized the great importance of training workers. An important point of the scientific approach is the recognition by the authors that management work is a specific specialty, and each group of workers should focus on what she does best. As a result, management was recognized as an independent field of scientific research. Managers and scientists are convinced that the methods and approaches used in science and production can be effectively used in achieving goals.
The authors of the theory of the administrative approach of the classical school of management - A. Fayol, L. Urwick, D. Mooney and others - had experience working as senior managers in big business. They largely proceeded from personal observations, rather than being based on scientific methodology, and tried to look at organizations from a perspective point of view, to determine their general characteristics and patterns. The goal of these scientists was to create universal management principles that would address two main aspects. The first aspect is the development of a rational management system. By defining the basic functions of management, the authors found the best way to divide the organization into divisions or work groups. The second aspect concerned the structure of the organization and the management of employees. A. Fayol highlighted such management principles as unity of command, manager’s responsibility for the activities of the team, material incentives, unity of purpose for all employees of the organization, etc.
Fayol's principles and functions of management
A. Fayol (1841-1925) divided the entire management process into five main functions that we still use in managing an organization: planning, organization, selection and placement of personnel, leadership (motivation) and control. Based on the teachings of A. Fayol in the 20s. The concept of the organizational structure of a company was also formulated, the elements of which represent a system of relationships, a series of continuous interrelated actions - management functions.
The management principles developed by A. Fayol should be recognized as an independent result of the science of management, “administration” (hence the name “administrative school”). It is no coincidence that Americans call the Frenchman A. Fayol the father of management.
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