Oct 16, 2013
We have already talked about well-known Russian popular science magazines, but it is not worth saying that Russia is not the whole world, and therefore there are publications abroad that can surprise no less, and often much more, than their domestic counterparts. That is why today we will talk about popular science magazines from abroad.
It is worth noting that there are a huge number of them, but not every resource or magazine can boast of special achievements or materials that they publish. In order to sift the wheat from the chaff, we will talk about the most famous and eminent, about those who have proven that the quality of the material always comes first. Let's move on to the top 5 popular science foreign magazines.
5. Scientific American
In fifth place is Scientific American - from smallest to largest, that is today's motto. And the fifth position is boldly and confidently occupied by the oldest popular science magazine in the United States, which was published back in 1845 - Scientific American.
Initially Scientific American was not a magazine as such, it was a newspaper consisting of four pages in which they wrote about new inventions. The newspaper paid most of its attention to reports from the US Patent Office, which is not surprising, since the office was the best source useful information at that moment. Over time, the magazine developed more and more, its volume increased, and they began to write not only about what discoveries had occurred.
In addition, at the beginning of the 20th century, the magazine distinguished itself by publishing the encyclopedia The Americana (which is considered one of the largest encyclopedias on English) in 16 volumes. It is also interesting to see how the magazine changed its direction in terms of choosing the target audience.
It should also be noted that there is a domestic version of the magazine - “In the World of Science”, which was published from 1983 to 1993, and after printing stopped, it was relaunched in 2003. However, he was unable to gather the same audience, this is not difficult to determine, just compare the circulation of the classic “SciAM”, which is about 500 thousand copies, and just over 12 thousand “In the World of Science”.
Along with the printed version, there is also an electronic version of the magazine; finding it on the Internet is not difficult.
4. Popular science magazine Discover
Fourth place magazine Discover- initially chose as its audience non-professionals in the world of science, however, having simplified the concept of presenting material, the magazine did not use in its publications materials about various kinds of “mysterious” phenomena such as UFOs, Bigfoot, etc. - Discover. In fact, the purpose of the magazine could initially be interpreted as a search for the “golden mean” between scientific publications and light popular science notes. First published in 1980, the magazine was able to gain the trust of its audience almost immediately. In addition to the fact that quite serious scientific materials were published here, the authors did not forget about what would help lure the reader. Articles about psychology and psychiatry became just such a bait. However, the magazine had something to interest its readers. One of the most popular columns was “Skeptical About,” in which the author tried to reveal myths and fakes of the scientific world. Thus, this section has become the most read for several years. However, after two decades (in 2006), the magazine’s policy will undergo modifications associated with a change in management and many of the sections will disappear, and the design of the magazine will change.
Despite the fact that the magazine throughout its existence wrote about serious things, this did not prevent the tradition of the “April Fool's prank” from arising, when one article came out as a joke and was essentially a hoax, which was written about in the next issue of the magazine. However, it was impossible not to notice it, but even the refutation of the hoax article still caused indignation among the magazine’s readers.
The magazine is published on at the moment, however, it is produced only abroad, without having Russian-language analogues. Those who speak the language can read the electronic version, and for those who do not have good knowledge of English, we can advise you to search the Internet for popular science programs in Russian from the magazine “Discovery” (there are some available).
3. Popular Mechanics Magazine
In third position is the magazine Popular Mechanics, which has enormous popularity both abroad and in the CIS; we have already discussed its Russian counterpart. So, meet - Popular Mechanics. Talk a lot about this magazine does not make sense, some are known, and some we mentioned last time.
However, it’s still worth saying a few words. Popular Mechanics has been published since January 11, 1902 and is a classic representative of popular science magazines. The current circulation is more than 1 million 200 thousand copies; it publishes its publications in some countries of the world (including Russia, the countries of South Africa and others). There was a publication in Latin America, but they were forced to close it.
Despite the fact that the circulation has decreased compared to the 80s of the 20th century, it cannot be said that the magazine has lost its audience. The decrease in circulation by 400 thousand is largely due not to a drop in reader interest, but to the development of the Internet, which has made it possible to create electronic versions of printed publications.
By the way, the English-language Popular Mechanics has a website, and a subscription to this prestigious publication will cost you only $12 a year, but you won’t be able to subscribe to the domestic analogue of the site, but you can register and buy magazines freely (the old issue is 59 rubles, a new one - 99 rubles, and an annual archive will cost 590 rubles).
2. Scientific magazine Popular Science
In second place in our top is Popular Science, which is the true embodiment of popular science, is currently published in 45 different countries around the world, in more than 30 languages, and has many awards and prizes - Popular Science.
As with the Popular Mechanics magazine, this publication does not need any additional introduction, but it is also impossible not to say anything about it. Initially, the magazine published the works of contemporary scientists such as Darwin, Huxley, Peirce, Cattell and others, but “popular science” did not immediately gain popularity. And if during its appearance the magazine managed to attract attention, then every year its popularity faded away, until, finally, at the beginning of the 20th century it was sold to a new publisher (by the way, this publisher was James Cattell, whose articles were published more than once in Popular Science). However, this did not help the magazine and in 1915 it was sold again. It was from this time that the active life of the magazine and its flourishing began. Almost a century later, Popular Science organizes an innovative project - a bookmaker platform for betting on the prediction of the newest inventions of mankind.
Now the magazine has achieved respect and popularity, which has brought it almost to the top, at least in terms of circulation (1,323,041 copies - impressive, right?), Popular Science currently occupies second place, but is it interesting or not It's up to you to judge.
1. National Geographic magazine rating winner
We decided to give the prize for first place to the magazine National Geographic— we have finally reached a publication that, in our opinion, deservedly occupies a leading position among popular science magazines in the world. National Geographic. It is published in many countries, the magazine is published in 33 languages and has achieved such popularity for a reason.
Born in 1888, his parent was the National geographical society, which arose just 9 months earlier. Initially, only scientific articles were published, and illustrations did not appear in the magazine until 1905. It was in 1905 that the history of the magazine as a popular science magazine began.
The magazine has a lot to do with this year, but the most important thing is undoubtedly the appearance in the magazine issue of photographs of the mysterious and unknown Tibet in those days. And this became a key event because these photographs actually saved the magazine from ruin and created for it corporate identity. It is noteworthy that on the territory of Russia people saw these same photographs back in 1901, and only 4 years later the authors of the photographs (Russian travelers - Buryats Gombozhab Tsybikov and Kalmyk Ovshe Norzunov) sold their works to National Geographic.
The popularization of science in Russia is developing rapidly, and it seems to me that we are all lucky to live in a time when there really is something to read. I’ll tell you about different media - from my profession I know that there are a great many of them, and everyone will definitely choose something to their liking. It all depends on who you are and what you are looking for :)
I myself work in the young (but no less wonderful) publication Indicator.ru, where we write about all sorts of different sciences and technologies, we try to do it faster and better than anyone else, and we also publish exclusive interviews (also with Nobel laureates), analytical texts on the most pressing issues, beautiful videos, cute tests, fascinating pictures of the day, every day we talk about the history of science - and we know how to joke, which is also important. We love our work and want to share these wonderful things with the whole world. Here we are on VK, if anything.
But this does not mean that I am going to hide from you a bunch of other cool publications and sites with their own character and their own good ones. For example, there is elementy.ru - an excellent site where texts retell scientific articles in detail, and they are most often written by scientists, not journalists, but in such a way that the style does not suffer. Among them, for example, lives Alexander Markov (if you know who I mean).
A wonderful paper magazine with a rough cover, made by a team of people with sparkling eyes - "Schrodinger's Cat". It is aimed more at a teenage audience, but there is a child in almost every adult, right?
There are also thematic things. So, those who are serious about biology will like biomolecula.ru (most often the scientists themselves write there), and those who love irony will like “Batrachospermum” (such an algae, what did you think?). Those who like to talk about the evolution of Homo sapiens will find many valuable arguments on antropogenez.ru, and those who want to better understand the work of the brain will appreciate Neuronews, and those interested in medicine will appreciate www.fleming.pro.
Humanities and art historians will find topics to their liking at Arzamas and at the Magisterium (unfortunately, I am less aware of printed journals for them).
Lovers of mesmerizing views and stories from all over the Earth (and not only) will love the oldest Russian popular science magazine "Around the World" and the somewhat similar National Geographic in its Russian-language version. Another magazine with history is “Science and Life”. But “Chemistry and Life” in some ways (for example, in publishing stories on its pages) still retains the features of a typical “thick” magazine of the 19th century. And this is not bad at all - some people like it. And for those who are crazy about cars, but also want to read about science, “Popular Mechanics”, which also has a paper version, is suitable.
There are also a huge bunch of blogs and sites that are actually run by one person - for example, metkere.com by Ilya Kabanov, or here is the blog on the history of medicine. This is where my eyes just run wild - and I don’t know if you’re looking for blogs.
Popular science books continue to be the most fundamental means of popularization. In a broad sense popular science book publication should be considered a publication that contains information about theoretical and/or experimental research and is intended to popularize and promote the fundamentals and achievements of science and technology, culture and the results of applied activities among the general public in a form accessible to them. All in all subject of content A popular science publication can be considered everything that is related to science and scientific research: results scientific research, the scientific field in which research is being conducted. Subjects popular science publications can be quite broad. It should be determined by the needs and objectives of society, the interests and demand of readers. The purpose and functional properties of popular science publications are related to this.
Purpose popular science publication - popularization and propaganda of the fundamentals and achievements of science, technology, culture and the results of applied activities among the general public. The most important function a popular science book is popularization and propaganda of scientific knowledge. This, in the most general definition, is the intended purpose of the book in question. Scientific knowledge spiritually enriches the reader of a popular science book, awakening in him further cognitive interest, contributes to the development of his creative initiative, and finally introduces him to knowledge. Worldview function involves the presentation in a popular science book of natural science knowledge and laws of nature, coverage of achievements in the development of theoretical problems that open up new prospects for science and, on its basis, new opportunities for the progress of production. Popular art publications perform an important function of aesthetic education. For everyone who follows the development of science, popular science publications, regardless of whether they relate to technical, humanities, art or other branches of scientific knowledge, are necessary and useful as a means of expanding scientific and educational horizons. There are well-known points of view according to which scientifically popular edition must fulfill informative functions. This is not controversial. In principle, any book is a means of recording, storing and transmitting information. A popular science book can be considered and perceived as a source of scientific information in educational process, when writing coursework and theses. Evaluating a popular science book in this way, one should recognize it as scientific communication tool.
Mass The reader is very diverse, and its division into any specific groups is perhaps largely arbitrary. We can identify a significant reader category - people with a fairly high general training, cat. monitor the development of science, technology, etc. In a popular science book, these readers are looking for answers to pressing questions of the universe, existence, and spiritual life. Their interests may be determined by the need for further self-education, the desire to fill their leisure time with useful reading. For people with an average education, science and pop. The book is a valuable aid in solving practical problems. questions. For students (from junior school to university graduates), a popular science book may be of special interest as a teaching tool that complements mandatory educational publications and serves to expand program knowledge. + Specialists in related industries.
Types of popular science publications: In book science there is no unambiguous view on the classification of popular science publications. More precisely, types of popular science publications are not considered at all. Authors most often avoid this question by talking about popular science literature in general, and not about the book. Where we are talking about a popular science book, one or two of its books are taken as the basis for the classification. functions. For example, the following types of popular science books are offered: cognitive, informational;for children allocate popular science and scientific and artistic publications. Little or almost nothing is written about works of the popular science genre. By known definition State standard, a publication is a document intended to disseminate the information it contains. The publication serves to create conditions and ensure the effective use of the work by the reader. When preparing a popular science publication, the editor takes into account that today the reader receives information from all means of propaganda and has a high educational level. At the same time, a popular book about science cannot and should not replace either a textbook or instructions. Among popular science works there are those that can be classified as genre, same as scientific works monograph, article. Based on the genre of popular science monograph, the creation of publications, which is called popular science monograph. As in any monograph, it should present information on one problem or topic. This is, for example, any discovery, invention, creation of a theory, the problem of scientific research, the problem of the formation and development of science, etc. The monograph covers extremely wide range of issues history of the development of science and technology from the ancient world to our time, from natural philosophy and early atomism to quantum electronics and cosmic rays. It contains the main milestones in the history of many important areas of science and technology, briefly characterizes the main creators of these areas, and outlines the most important stages of their development. Obviously, along with such a monograph there may be monographs dedicated to individual, narrow areas in the field of science and technology, individual problems and topics. And where there is the development of science, the solution of scientific problems, there are researchers, scientists, their creative scientific activities, their scientific biography.
IN scientific and biographical monograph. The life of a scientist is illuminated, the formation of his worldview is shown, and his contribution to science is characterized. A kind of popular science biographical monograph is a publication in which the theme is the journey of a scientist with scientific goals. Thus, a popular science monograph can have a number of varieties.
Along with popular science monographs, collections scientific popular works. The collection is compiled from scientific. articles, memoirs, essays, excerpts from official documents. Doc.
When creating a popular science publication, editorial searches and decisions are possible, as well as the use of means and techniques that are novel and effective in influencing the reader. In this sense, a popular science publication gives the editor more freedom than other types of publications, starting with concept development. The editor is required to take into account the nature of the information (specific content) of the publication, specify which reader it is addressed to and what purpose is set for him. It is important to coordinate the idea of the publication with the author at the stage of assessing the prospectus plan. In the case when the author submits an initiative manuscript, the idea is assessed at the stage of drawing up an editorial opinion on the author's original. The editor may have his own idea, which is born as a result of studying reader demand or taking into account, for example, what topics are to be studied in school. Then by the time students master educational material it is good to give them a suitable non-fiction publication.
When forming the concept of a publication, the editor should pay attention to special attention on the specifics of the reader's address of a popular science book, which, despite attempts to differentiate it, is largely vague, especially in its middle part, which is limited, on the one hand, to the student reader, on the other, to the specialist reader. The editor needs to thoroughly research the reader's needs, interests and requests, mainly at the pre-publishing stage of work on creating a popular science publication.
Table 12.5. Characteristics of genres of popular science literature
| Genre | Subject of presentation | The goal as the author’s motive was created | Specific social function document | |
| material | document | |||
| Note (popular science message) | Short message about scientific and technical achievements | Promptly informing non-specialist readers about the achievements of science | ||
| Popular science article | A concise description in popular scientific language of the latest achievements in the fields of science, technology and production | Popularization of modern scientific and technical achievements to familiarize non-specialists with them | ||
| Scientific and artistic story | A concise description in popular scientific and artistic language of known facts from history and the current state of science | Popularization of scientific knowledge, familiarization with it to unprepared readers and children | Popularization of scientific knowledge, familiarization with it to a wide range of readers | |
| Popular science monograph | A comprehensive presentation in popular scientific language of the results of research on a scientific problem | Popularization of modern scientific and technical achievements to familiarize non-specialists with them | Popularization of the achievements of science, technology, production, and their history | |
| Popular science reference book | Concise presentation in a manner convenient for searching and orienting, information about the development of science and its achievements | Popularization among non-specialists of information on the history of science, technology, production, art and modern scientific and technical achievements | Popularization of the achievements of science, technology, production, art, and their history | |
| Popular science essay | Description in popular scientific language of individual periods in the history of science, technology, production, culture or information about modern achievements in the fields of science, technology, production, culture, etc.; description of individual research or activities of scientific institutions, enterprises, cultural institutions, etc. | Popularization among non-specialists of information from the history of science, technology, production, culture, etc. | Popularization of the achievements of science, technology, production, culture, and their history | |
| Popular science encyclopedia | A popular presentation in a systematic form of basic information on one or all branches of knowledge and practical activity, designed for non-specialist readers | Orientation of non-specialists in the achievements of science and culture | ||
| Popular science encyclopedic dictionary | A popular science encyclopedia containing short articles, presented in a concise form and arranged according to alphabet of their names | Orientation of non-specialists in the achievements of science and culture | Orientation of non-specialists in the achievements of science and culture | |
| Popular science (recommendatory) bibliographic manual | Recommendation to the non-specialist reader of the best works available for the presentation of material on a specific topic or branch of knowledge | Orientation of non-specialists in the achievements of science and culture | Orientation of non-specialists in the achievements of science and culture | |
43. Types of reference publications and features of their preparation
Species-typological composition
A reference publication is a publication containing brief information scientific or applied nature, arranged in an order convenient for their quick finding, not intended for continuous reading.” The most important types of reference publications include dictionaries, reference books, and encyclopedias. Their species range is extremely diverse - from multi-volume universal encyclopedias to compact reference books with a narrow target focus (guidebook, prospectus, catalogue). This is due to the fact that a reference publication can contain any information (on the topic, scientific level of the material, methods of presentation, volume, etc.) and be intended for any reader category.
The most common function of reference publications is the reference function: they are intended to obtain information of a diverse nature, sum up the knowledge accumulated by science and practice. They are characterized by a special selection of facts, due to the need to compress information; special language and style, laconic presentation; maximum openness to search for the necessary information. All this requires specific ways of presenting the material, its optimization, which is expressed in the special structure of reference publications and the active use of search orientation tools. For reference publications, the material is selected, processed and systematized in accordance with the intended purpose, which is primarily related to the task of providing answers to the expected questions of the potential reader. The reader receives the desired answer (makes inquiries) by turning in one way or another to a specific section of the publication. The answers are characterized by the qualities of necessity, completeness, usefulness, and novelty of the information they contain. The nature of the information varies widely depending on the reader's address and the specific purpose of the publication.
The most important requirement for compiling a reference publication is the clearest and most complete development of its concept, which should take into account the needs of a specific reader group and the specific objectives of the publication. Any reference publication responds to a certain type of information request. The structure of the publication, content, method of presenting information, units of information presentation must be adequate to the request. The reference publication (answers provided) bridges the gap between the knowledge of the author (collective author) and the partial, incomplete knowledge of the readers.
The concept of the publication becomes the basis of editorial preparation reference book; detailing the key parameters of a publication at the stage of its design allows the editor to make informed and informed decisions at all stages of his work. In this regard special meaning has a deep knowledge of the editor's typological features of the reference book. Let's look at this in more detail.
Encyclopedic publications
An encyclopedia is a reference publication containing, in a generalized form, basic information on one or all branches of knowledge and practical activities, presented in the form of short articles arranged in alphabetical or systematic order. The encyclopedia includes a generalized collection of ordered, conceptually organized and tested information. The task of an encyclopedia is to present to the reader, in a text of a planned length, a systematized body of knowledge on all (universal encyclopedia) or one branch of knowledge (specialized). Important requirements for an encyclopedia are conciseness of presentation, concentration of factual material, and its accuracy.
According to the structure of the main text, encyclopedias can be alphabetical or systematic. There are also encyclopedias with a mixed structure: systematic-alphabetic and alphabetic-systematic. In such publications, extensive review articles, placed before or after the alphabetical vocabulary part, play an important role.
The structural unit of the main text of an alphabetic encyclopedia is an encyclopedic dictionary entry, which is a relatively independent text with a title word and its explanation. The headword names the object of the article description. It can be a word, phrase, expression, term, proper name, etc. The text of the article gives characteristics of the named object. The basis of an encyclopedic article is specific information and facts, as well as concepts, laws, rules, etc.
Along with short articles containing only a definition and (or) a small reference, the encyclopedia may also contain detailed articles that fully describe the named object. Thus, in large encyclopedias, large complex articles are essentially monographs on a specific issue and have a complex structure, fixed in a system of headings.
The encyclopedia articles are interconnected and form a single complex, reflecting the system of accumulated knowledge on the issues covered in the publication. The set of articles is, in turn, a certain system of organically interconnected sections and cycles. The most important requirement for the main text of the encyclopedia is the systematic presentation of the range of information.
The material for the encyclopedia is selected purposefully, and comprehensive coverage of both an individual phenomenon, event, subject, and their totality should be provided. The most important qualities material - reliability and scientific character, compliance with the modern level of knowledge in this field.
Articles should not duplicate each other. To eliminate repetitions, a system of in-text links and references to articles where you can find necessary information. Links connect related or related concepts and serve to facilitate searching when using the publication. In-text links indicate which articles can provide additional information; references direct the reader to the article, which provides basic information.
To save space, the encyclopedia uses a system of abbreviations and symbols that help unify the design of all elements of text and illustrative material in the publication. Abbreviations and symbols adopted for this publication are placed in the lists of abbreviations and symbols, abbreviations, abbreviations of bibliographic descriptions, etc.
According to OST 29.132-99, scientific, popular science and popular encyclopedias are distinguished by purpose and readership address. Scientific encyclopedias are intended for specialists and require in-depth development of individual issues; the scientific nature of the encyclopedia is expressed primarily in the principles of selection of material (“Big Medical Encyclopedia”, “Mathematical Physics”). A popular science encyclopedia is addressed to a wide range of readers and covers any area of knowledge quite fully and comprehensively, taking into account the interests of readers (Concise Medical Encyclopedia, one-volume industry encyclopedic dictionaries). The popular encyclopedia contains a wide range of information needed in everyday life or for leisure (“Your child”, “Home”, “Machine embroidery”).
According to the nature of information, universal, specialized, and regional encyclopedias are distinguished. A universal encyclopedia contains information on all areas of knowledge and, as a rule, refers to popular science encyclopedias (“Encyclopedic Dictionary” by Brockhaus and Efron, “Encyclopedic Dictionary” by the Granat brothers, “Big Soviet Encyclopedia”, “Small Soviet Encyclopedia”, “Soviet encyclopedic dictionary", "Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary"). A specialized encyclopedia is dedicated to a specific area of knowledge and can refer to both scientific, popular science and popular encyclopedias. A regional encyclopedia reflects information about a country or geographic area; it can be both universal and specialized (“Cities of Russia”, “Geography of Russia”, “Moscow”).
Specialized encyclopedias can be sectoral, thematic, personal; they are devoted to the consideration of a range of issues that are of a private nature (private in relation to the universal encyclopedia). The sectoral encyclopedia contains a collection of information on a particular branch of science and practical activity (“Big Medical Encyclopedia”, “Small Medical Encyclopedia”, “Brief Literary Encyclopedia”, “Philosophical Encyclopedia”, “Physical Encyclopedia”). The thematic encyclopedia reveals with encyclopedic completeness one or another local topic (“Cosmonautics”, “Russian Ballet”, “Russian Hunt”, “Chess”). Personal encyclopedias provide comprehensive coverage of the life and work of any outstanding personality (“Shevchenko Encyclopedia”, “Lermontov Encyclopedia”).
According to the method of organizing the text, encyclopedias are divided into multi-volume and single-volume, and according to the completeness of information - into complete (large) and short (small). One-volume (less often two-three-volume) alphabetic encyclopedias are called encyclopedic dictionaries.
According to GOST 7.60-90, an encyclopedic dictionary is an encyclopedia in which the material is arranged in alphabetical order. It is believed that an encyclopedia is characterized by the presence of a significant number of large, complex articles, and encyclopedic dictionaries consist mainly of brief reference articles; they practically lack the apparatus of references to other articles, which is actively used in encyclopedias.
In addition, there is a gradation of encyclopedic publications taking into account their volume: large encyclopedias - several dozen volumes, small ones - 10-12 volumes, short ones - 4-6 volumes, encyclopedic dictionaries - 1-3 volumes. In this division of encyclopedic publications into encyclopedias and encyclopedic dictionaries, the volume of information in the publication as a whole and the volume of articles are taken into account: in both cases, this indicator is less for the latter than for the former. Thus, the quantitative feature is one of the main ones when distinguishing encyclopedic dictionaries from encyclopedic publications as a whole.
The encyclopedia apparatus includes (in addition to the output information): an accompanying article (preface, etc.), a list of abbreviations and symbols, a system of links, auxiliary indexes, a bibliographic apparatus, and contents. All encyclopedias contain a preface from the compilers (editor, publishing house, editorial board), which provides general explanations about the nature and purposes of the publication and recommendations for its use.
Important element encyclopedia apparatus - an auxiliary index, which, according to OST 29.132-99, is mandatory (with the exception of an encyclopedic dictionary, which usually contains many thousands of articles). The type of auxiliary index chosen for a particular publication depends on the subject and type of encyclopedia, as well as the way the articles are arranged. Sometimes encyclopedias use a system of indexes (nominal, thematic, subject, etc.). The auxiliary index can be a single one, combining subject and name indexes.
The bibliographic apparatus of the encyclopedia includes article-by-article bibliographic lists of a recommendatory nature on a specific issue. A book bibliography may be placed at the end of the publication. In accordance with OST 29.132-99, the content is placed, as a rule, in systematic encyclopedias, as well as in thematic encyclopedias in the form of a list of dictionary entries.
Dictionary editions
A dictionary is a reference publication containing an ordered list of language units (words, phrases, phrases, terms, names, signs) equipped with reference data related to them. IN structurally A dictionary publication is characterized by a dissected arrangement of material: each word or group of words is devoted to an independent section of text that makes up a dictionary entry. A dictionary entry is a structural unit of a dictionary; it includes a headword and its explanation (definition, interpretation, equivalents in other languages, etc.). The article can be continuous or divided into zones of basic and additional information. So, in the explanatory dictionary the pronunciation of the word, etymology, its synonyms, etc. are additional information. In an etymological dictionary, on the contrary, additional information may be the interpretation of the word.
Key Features dictionaries (primarily language ones) - informative (allow you to gain knowledge in the shortest way), communicative (give knowledge about the vocabulary of your native or foreign language as a means of communication) and normative (fix the meanings of words, reinforce the language norm).
Considerable experience in systematizing language dictionaries and extensive data on their compilation and description have been accumulated in lexicography. Theoretical lexicography covers, in particular, the following problems: development of a general typology of dictionaries and dictionaries of new types; development of the macrostructure of the dictionary (selection of vocabulary, principles of arrangement of words and dictionary entries, identification of homonyms, etc.); development of the microstructure of the dictionary, i.e. a separate dictionary entry (selection and classification of meanings, types of dictionary definitions, types of language illustrations, marking system, etc.). The achievements of practical lexicography (dictionary science) are closely related to the practice of editorial preparation of dictionary publications and are reflected in real editorial decisions.
In lexicography, a dictionary is understood as “a reference book that contains words (or morphemes, phrases, idioms, etc.) arranged in a certain order (different in different types of dictionaries), explains the meanings of the described units, gives various information about them or their translation into another language or provides information about the objects designated by them.” Just as in the above definition (according to GOST 7.60-90), it contains an indication of the structure of the dictionary (the method of “ordering” language units), the nature of the information (linguistic, extralinguistic), but does not specify the scope of the word’s characteristics. Both definitions allow us to consider all types of dictionary publications as dictionaries. Based on the nature of the information, the status of the object of description, and the characterized aspects of a word or phrase, three groups of dictionaries are distinguished: linguistic, terminological, and encyclopedic.
Language (linguistic) dictionaries describe the lexical-semantic structure of a language. Reflecting the real existence of a word in language and speech, they derive its meaning from its uses in various contexts, accompany the word with notes and clarifications, examples and illustrations showing situations in which the word is used. Language dictionaries serve the purpose of describing and normalizing a language, helping to improve the accuracy and expressiveness of the speech of its speakers.
In the article below from the dictionary of homonyms, in accordance with the purpose of the publication (it compares words included in a pair or group of homonyms), several aspects of lexicographic information are presented; in order to clearly show the semantic incompatibility of homonyms, they are provided with translations into foreign languages.
Terminological dictionaries reflect the terminological system (terminology) of one or more special fields of knowledge or activity. These dictionaries explain the concepts denoted by the terms of a particular branch of knowledge. An article in a terminological dictionary gives a definition of the meaning of a term (semantization of a term), and may also include formal (grammatical, phonetic) and statistical information, an equivalent in another language, an indication of interrelated terms (synonyms, generic concepts), indicators of admissibility, recommendability, linguistic and graphic illustrations.
Encyclopedic dictionaries, as already noted, contain the most important information about current state of one or another branch of knowledge, about the most important events, persons, phenomena, they reveal not words, but concepts. Their vocabulary, as a rule, includes nouns (proper and common nouns). Below are three articles with the same title word (in this case a proper noun); This situation is very typical for encyclopedic dictionaries.
Thus, the object of description in linguistic dictionaries are linguistic units - words, stable combinations, word forms, morphemes, etc., in terminological dictionaries - concepts denoted by terms, in encyclopedic dictionaries - concepts, terms, personalities, historical events, geographical realities, etc. .p.
Based on the relationship between the left (headword) and right (information about the word) parts of a dictionary entry, dictionaries are divided into one-sided, having only the left part, and two-sided. Double-sided are divided into transferable and non-transferable. Translations are bi- and multilingual.
Based on the way the head vocabulary block is arranged, dictionaries are divided into alphabetic and non-alphabetic. The alphabetical arrangement of articles is traditional. Systematic dictionaries are built according to the main sections and subsections of the discipline being reflected.
Alphabetical dictionaries are divided into strictly alphabetic (direct and reverse) and nested (for example, V.I. Dahl’s dictionary). In nested dictionaries, the material is arranged according to the alphabet of the so-called primitive words, while their derivatives and cognates are placed in the same dictionary entry. Derived words are arranged in alphabetical nests depending on their word-formation connections, which makes it possible to present words not in a mechanical sequence, but taking into account their morphological and word-formation properties. Here is an example of a nest from the two-volume “Word-formation dictionary of the Russian language” by A.N. Tikhonov (the volume of some nests in this dictionary is extremely large; for example, in the nests headed by the words lead, two and half, 507, 574 and 587 words are presented, respectively):
The alphabetical group also includes reverse dictionaries, in which words are selected according to the alphabet not by the first, but by the last letter (then the penultimate, third from the end, etc.) and aligned not to the left, but to the right. A fragment of the reverse dictionary text looks like this:
Non-alphabetic dictionaries are divided into thematic ones, in which words are arranged according to conceptual groups, denoting certain fragments of the linguistic picture of the world, and statistical ones, in which words are arranged according to decreasing or increasing frequency. Thus, frequency dictionaries register certain linguistic units (words, morphemes, etc.) indicating the frequency of their use in speech. Here is a fragment of the frequency dictionary text:
A necessary element of any dictionary (as well as an alphabetical encyclopedia) is a dictionary - a list of any language units (words, phrases, phrases, terms, etc.), arranged in alphabetical or systematic order, which is prepared for working on a dictionary (encyclopedia) . The glossary is a complete list of articles intended for publication, indicating their volume. In addition, this is a list of capital words denoting objects of description, i.e. words that are subject to clarification and interpretation. Dictionary edition in general view is a collection of articles, each of which creates an illustration of the title word (term).
Dictionaries are an extremely diverse array of publications, distinguished by a number of characteristics that often overlap and complement each other. Thus, in lexicography it is customary to differentiate language dictionaries, in particular, by the selection of vocabulary - general, covering the entire vocabulary of the language (thesauri), and private, reflecting its individual layers (dialect, vernacular, argot, the writer’s language, etc.) or special varieties of words (archaisms, neologisms, rare words, abbreviations, foreign words, etc.); by the method of describing words - revealing certain aspects of words and relationships between them (etymological, word-formation, spelling, orthoepic, synonymous, etc.), by unit (object) of lexicographic description - describing units less than words (dictionaries of roots, morphemes), more words (dictionaries of phrases, phraseological units, quotes) or matching the word; according to the arrangement of the material - ideographic, analogous (words are arranged according to semantic associations), inverse; by purpose - dictionaries of errors, difficulties, educational ones; according to the number of languages - monolingual, bilingual and multilingual.
In book typology, which largely relies on lexicographic data, dictionaries are differentiated by purpose, readership (linguistics specialists, students, general readers), nature of information, structure.
According to their intended purpose, language dictionaries are divided into scientific, normative, educational and popular, terminological dictionaries - into normative, educational and popular.
Scientific (or research) language dictionaries contain materials from linguistic research and can perform basic functions when creating normative, educational and popular publications; they are intended for use in professional activity specialists. As an example scientific publication One can cite the academic two-volume “Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language”, which, in terms of the coverage of linguistic units, the wealth of illustrative material, and the level of scientific training, occupies an exceptional place in the world practice of compiling synonymous dictionaries.
Standard dictionaries include only the established vocabulary of modern literary language in accordance with the currently valid language norm. The normative ones include, for example, “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” edited by D. N. Ushakov, “Dictionary of the Russian Language” by S. I. Ozhegov, spelling, spelling dictionaries, dictionaries of correct speech. Multi-volume academic explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language combine the functions of scientific and normative dictionaries, for example the 17-volume “Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language”.
Educational language dictionaries serve the purpose of language teaching. They act as a means of developing students’ lexical knowledge in the direct educational process and during independent study of original or educational texts; they record techniques and means of enriching students’ language experience. The dictionary of such a publication is focused on the targeted selection of vocabulary, subordinated to specific learning objectives.
Popular dictionaries contain the most commonly used vocabulary of the modern literary language and pursue general educational purposes: unlike educational dictionaries, their intended purpose is not related to the tasks of language teaching. These include phrase books and short pocket dictionaries.
The main body of terminological dictionaries consists of normative dictionaries. Educational terminological dictionaries solve the problem of establishing adequate, stable terminological concepts among students and teachers in accordance with the training course. (Normative terminological dictionaries include, for example, “Dictionary of Linguistic Terms” by O.S. Akhmanova; educational ones include “Dictionary-Reference Book of Linguistic Terms” by D.E. Rosenthal and M.A. Telenkova.) Popular dictionaries are designed to help the unprepared reader master terms of any science, introduce him to the most commonly used concepts, and clearly reveal their content.
The apparatus of the dictionary edition includes accompanying articles, lists of abbreviations and symbols, a system of references, an auxiliary index (in some cases), and a bibliographic list. The most important of the accompanying articles is the preface, which reveals the views of the authors and compilers on individual problems of dictionary work, indicates the goals and objectives of the dictionary, the topics it covers, etc. Among the accompanying articles, elements entitled “How to use the dictionary”, “How the dictionary is built” should be highlighted ", "Structure of a dictionary entry", etc., which make it easier for the reader to search for information and use the publication as a whole.
Directories
A reference book is a publication that is of an applied, practical nature, has a systematic structure or is organized according to the alphabet of article titles. The directory contains a set of information covering a specific field of knowledge and (or) practical activity and is structured in such a way as to ensure ease of searching for the necessary data. Reference books are characterized by a clearly applied, practical orientation.
In most reference books, the structural unit is a reference article, which contains the answer to the question posed in its title, which is usually characterized by clarity and clarity. For example, in the reference book “Heat-resistant plastics” (Moscow, 1980), the relevant section includes the articles “ General characteristics and purpose”, “Sample pressing modes”, “Mechanical characteristics”, “Thermophysical properties”, “Chemical resistance”, “The influence of ionizing radiation on mechanical properties"etc.; An important role is given to tabular material; in some cases, the article directly refers the reader to the table:
The Handbook does not explain or substantiate the data presented; its task is to give a specific and, if possible, comprehensive answer to the question posed; therefore, the question should be formulated as precisely and concisely as possible. There are reference books whose article titles are direct questions.
Reference data must be presented in a form that allows them to be quickly perceived and used. K.T. Yamchuk wrote: “The composition, which embodies the utilitarian purpose of the reference book, is the key to the reference system, without which the book, figuratively speaking, remains sealed for the reader”; in this case, of particular importance is “... the active author’s position, the logical justification of the text, the so-called “criticism from within,” which is achieved, for example, by a skillful comparison of quantitative and qualitative indicators.” Most often, the reference book uses a systematic principle for constructing material that corresponds to a certain logical system. The logical system can be based on a thematic, chronological, topographical or other principle. Alphabetical construction is also used in reference books; it is typical for biographical dictionaries, catalogues, identifiers, i.e. publications containing a large number of separate, unrelated articles.
Answers to questions posed in one way or another are given in the form of applied solutions, finite formulas, numerical values, recipes, advice, etc. Thus, in the Programmer's Handbook personal computers type IBM PC, XT and AT" article "Low level", included in the section "Determination of the number and type of peripheral devices", contains an example of solving a specific professional problem:
It is characteristic that in the preface the author tried to emphasize the applied nature of the reference book and show its usefulness for a specialist involved in practical programming. He, for example, notes: “If this book contains anything, it is facts - myriads of them, and I sincerely hope that they are all true. It also includes several hundred sample programs, and I would swear that they are all perfect.”
Directories widely use tables that allow for a compact, visual presentation of information; Some directories consist entirely of tables. In a number of reference books, a large information load falls on formulas and illustrations: technical and production drawings, graphs, diagrams, drawings, photographs, diagrams. The use of non-textual elements is determined by the specifics of the relevant field of knowledge or practical activity. For example, in the “Gas Worker’s Handbook” (Moscow, 1997), in the article “Features of Natural Gases,” an important role is given to a table that illustrates the author’s idea that mixtures consisting of a certain amount of gas and air are fire and explosive, and the process of combustion (explosion) occurs at certain ratios of gas and air when a fire source is introduced into such mixtures. The table also has independent significance, providing the reader with specific data on the properties of gases.
The peculiarities of the coverage of material presented in reference books are clearly revealed when they are compared with encyclopedias: the latter broadly and completely reflect the system of knowledge, while reference books are local in nature and involve the development of a separate aspect of this system. Special requirements are placed on the quality of the material, which must represent well-established data verified by science and practice.
In terms of the composition of the main text, reference books can be complex, containing a wide range of varied information on a certain topic and having a complex structure, and specialized, which contain homogeneous, narrowly topical information and, as a rule, do not have a complex structure.
In accordance with OST 29.133-99, the following types of directories are distinguished by purpose:
scientific, accumulating scientific knowledge in the relevant branch of knowledge and intended for scientific work;
production and practical, providing information related to a specific industry production activities, and intended for specialists engaged in production ( social activities);
mass-political, containing current socio-political information and intended for the general reader;
educational, including information on a specific academic discipline, organized according to curriculum and intended for students;
popular, providing information on a topic and intended for a wide range of readers;
Depending on the nature of the information, there are different types of reference books: a specialist reference book, an amateur reference book, a statistical reference book, a catalogue, a reference table, a guide, a biographical reference book (biographical dictionary), a guidebook, a calendar, and a calendar of significant dates.
By iconic nature information is highlighted in a text reference book, most of the volume of which is occupied by verbal, digital, formulaic or mixed text, and a visual reference book in which illustrations play the main role.
The structure of the reference book includes an accompanying article (preface), lists of abbreviations and symbols, a system of links, an auxiliary index, a bibliography, and contents (table of contents). The preface explains the goals, features of the content of the directory, and provides recommendations for its use. The preface in the reference book, as a rule, is quite laconic, however, it should contain comprehensive information about the publication and correctly orient the reader regarding its tasks, show the differences from other publications on similar topics, and inform about the changes made if the publication is repeated.
The auxiliary index is selected depending on the characteristics of a particular directory. The presence of an alphabetical index for a systematic reference book should be considered mandatory. In alphabetical reference books, an auxiliary index is also highly desirable. The auxiliary index for alphabetical directories can be single or form a system of indexes of different types.
When designing directories, OST 29.133-99 recommends the use of visual and communicative elements; the use of two of them: a table of contents and a variable footer is mandatory.
The editor's work on the structural unit of the publication
As already noted, the structure of reference publications reflects special ways of presenting material and its optimization, and in some cases the material is presented in the form of reference articles (actual reference and dictionary articles), which are the minimum structural units of the publication. The editor's work on a separate structural unit is an important independent stage in the preparation of a reference book, at which the principles formulated during the development of the concept and clarified by the editor in the publication model are practically implemented. Let's look at the features of editing the structural unit of a publication using the example of a dictionary entry.
A dictionary entry is a structural unit of a dictionary or encyclopedia, which is a relatively independent text that includes a title word (phrase, expression, concept, term) and its explanation (definition, interpretation, equivalents in other languages, etc.); a dictionary entry reflects the microstructure of the dictionary.
First of all, it is necessary to fully take into account the fact that a dictionary entry cannot be considered outside the appropriate context, i.e., outside the totality of articles and the publication as a whole, otherwise it will lose connections with other similar units and lose its definition and scale; the scope of the material, volume, selection of facts, their completeness and interpretation cease to be obvious. In this regard, the editor determines whether uniformity is observed in the description of homogeneous objects, that is, objects belonging to the same class. Articles covering concepts of the same logical plan, carrying the same semantic load, should have a similar structure, and their volumes should be approximately equal. This, of course, does not mean that such articles should be mechanically reduced to one structure or volume - it is important to maintain their proportionality and structural and compositional uniformity; the degree of completeness of presentation of material and condensation of information, form and method of presentation, level of scientific depth should be the same for them .
When analyzing a dictionary entry, you need to establish logical connections (sometimes quite complex) between the headword (as a linguistic unit) and the object of the description. The headword (sometimes called the “black word”) is nothing more than a graphic image, a sign; in order to move from it to the object of description, it is necessary to highlight such aspects of either the linguistic unit itself, or the denotation “hidden” behind this sign, which are directly reflected in the article (in the description of the object).
One of the important tasks of the editor is, therefore, to establish the status of the description object. At the macro level (i.e., the level of the publication as a whole), the status of an object is determined by the type-forming characteristics of the publication. The transition to the micro level (i.e., the level of individual articles) involves specifying aspects that are reflected in the article, taking into account the differences in the described objects belonging to different classes (for example, in an encyclopedic dictionary these are objects scientific terms, personalities, processes, events, etc.).
A specific way of describing an object is characterized by the selection of facts, the type of composition of the article, its volume, assessment of the object from any angle, etc. It is associated with the ability of an article to satisfy the reader’s potential need for information about a specific object. The method of description reveals the principles that formed the basis for the selection, systematization and presentation of material adopted in the publication as a whole (in conceptually different publications the same object will be described differently). It is also important to take into account that the methods of describing objects to one degree or another reflect the worldview and ideological positions of the authors (compilers), national characteristics presented materials, the degree of their scientific elaboration, etc.
As already noted, at the stage of development (analysis) of the concept of a publication, all the main typological characteristics of the publication and then the parameters of its individual structural units are established. Thus, a linguistic article reflects certain lexicographic parameters of a word: orthographic, accentological, grammatical, stylistic, semantic, stylistic, word-formation, phraseological and a number of others. Each parameter corresponds to a specific element of the article in which the lexicographic parameter is implemented. Depending on the type of dictionary, their number, ratio and depth of development change. Thus, articles in an explanatory monolingual dictionary, in addition to defining the meaning of a word, contain information about its spelling, pronunciation features, stress location, grammatical, word-formation properties, typical combinations and phraseological units in which it can be used. For example:
Historical, etymological, encyclopedic and other information may also be provided. In a one-volume popular dictionary representing the most common and relevant vocabulary, i.e., taking into account restrictions on the selection of vocabulary, the dictionary entry will include only the basic parameters of the word, and their disclosure will also be limited in a certain way. In a multi-volume academic dictionary there are no such restrictions and the set of characterized parameters will be much more complete.
The editor needs to determine whether the set of semantic components in the dictionary entry is consistently presented, and to identify its quantitative and qualitative components. The first includes the number of elements of the article and their permissible volume, the second - the degree and depth of elaboration of each element, the scientific level of information presented in the elements, the sequence of elements, and the features of their interaction. It is important to determine a necessary and sufficient set of elements, which involves constructing a general scheme of a dictionary entry, which should take into account the properties of objects at the genus level. For groups of articles describing objects of the same class (subclass), the parameters of the article are specified at the type (subtype) level. After this, it is possible to move on to the analysis of individual articles.
Let’s assume that the editor is offered the following structure for an article in an onomastic dictionary (revealing the meaning of proper names):
1. Heading word with grammatical characteristics. 2. Basic word-formations related to the name (derivatives). 3. General characteristics of the name. 4. Information about the name related to folklore (fairy tales, folk customs). 5. Information about the name found in proverbs. 6. Historical figures who bore this name. 7. Secondary names (common nouns formed from a given name). 8. Famous bearers of the surname. 9. Toponyms (names settlements based on the given name). 10. Zoonyms (animal names based on a given name).
What is the reason for this particular scheme for describing an object? It is assumed that the information presented in the dictionary will not contain anything new for native speakers themselves, who have a good command of the semantic background of Russian proper names. In this case, the reader's address of the publication is specific: the dictionary is addressed to foreigners studying the Russian language. Thus, it is necessary to keep in mind that this is an educational dictionary that meets specific learning objectives. In addition, the principles of vocabulary selection are taken into account - universal (information about names of all types) or specialized (a separate aspect or aspects). In the latter case, it must be determined which aspects (comparative historical, genetic, etymological, regional, comparative, statistical, etc.) will be reflected in the articles and in what combination. This purpose is served by constructing a model of a dictionary entry, which should include all levels of analysis and all possible elements of the entry. And on the basis of the model, criteria are developed by which specific dictionary entries will be evaluated, taking into account which each element can be analyzed.
All elements of the article also require close attention from the editor. Painstaking benchmarking large quantity articles for the uniformity of construction of each element and its completeness. Continuing with our example, the first element of the article looks like this:
Here, as well as in the article as a whole, a certain set of information and their sequence are specified, which must be observed in all articles. In addition, it is necessary to check the correct use of the litter that accompanies the articles. Using the litter is given brief description words expressed by the accepted abbreviation of the corresponding term. Grammatical marks reflect the morphological and syntactic properties of the word: noun. - noun, cf. - neuter, trans. - transitive verb. Stylistic marks indicate the scope of use of the word, its belonging to written or oral speech, historical affiliation, emotional connotation: poet. - poetic, chemical - chemical, soft - colloquial, arch. - archaic, ironic. - ironic. Special marks include the etymological characteristics of a foreign word.
It should be borne in mind that in modern lexicography there has been a tendency to streamline the system of marks and simplify some of them; some marks have fallen out of use, for example, all-Russian, common folk-ironic. In the article of the onomastic dictionary, along with the generally accepted ones, marks are used that are characteristic only of this type of dictionary, for example: personal. - derived personal names, ot. - derivatives of patronymic, fam. - derived surnames, top. - derived toponyms.
As for an article in an encyclopedic dictionary (encyclopedia), unlike an article in a language dictionary, it is a complete text, characterized by integrity and coherence as the essential properties of the text in general, consistency of presentation, semantic and grammatical completeness. For example:
An encyclopedic article characterizes not a unit of language, but an object, a concept, a phenomenon, i.e., its real-subject content. Deviations from this principle are also possible: an encyclopedic dictionary may contain interpretive articles that are very close to the linguistic description. In this case, the article records both the actual subject aspects of the headword and those related to its properties as a unit of language.
An encyclopedic article is characterized by the main components of the process of reader perception in relation to a related text - informational, logical, psychological, aesthetic. An encyclopedic article is, to a greater or lesser extent, open to the influence of subjective factors (for example, individual authorship), which are manifested at all levels of the article as a text.
The information richness of an encyclopedic article is determined by the number of facts used to describe the object, taken in their pure form, without evaluative provisions, means of connecting the structural components of the article, links, quotations (if they do not contain the same facts), etc. This is an objective indicator of the reference and information value of the article, its usefulness for the consumer, focused on objective, verified, established information on this issue. It is important to keep in mind that “facts” are understood in this case quite broadly: this is everything that is directly related to the object, its properties, that has the quality of neutrality, independence from the individual author’s approach. At the same time, it is the author who selects and builds the facts, inevitably introducing a personal element into this process, and this must be taken into account.
Degree of information development. This aspect logically continues the previous one: in articles with an equal degree of information richness, different means can be used, concise the presentation or, conversely, expanding its scope. It is necessary, however, to clarify that the compactness of the description may lead to the exclusion of some part of the information, and the article may lose such qualities as evidence, persuasiveness, accessibility, and expressiveness. Compact descriptions (with high information saturation) tend to unified forms supply of material. Detailed descriptions increase the level of communication of the article, have a more active influence on the reader, they have greater flexibility in composition and are able to create many more options (schemes) for presenting material.
It must be emphasized that information richness, the degree of information deployment, and the level of individualization become criteria for the editorial analysis of an encyclopedic article with mandatory consideration of the fundamental typological parameters of the publication; Diagrams of standard articles are also essential, without which it is impossible to correctly resolve questions about the volume and quality of the material proposed by the author.
Features of working with reference publications
Types of reference publications
Give an idea of the array of reference literature,
Consider what types it is represented by.
Reference publications differ from others in that the material in them is arranged in an order convenient for quick search. Reference publications have a stable structure, the main element of which is the dictionary entry, which are arranged in alphabetical or systematic order.
To date, a system of reference publications has developed that is designed to provide consumers with reliable information of any nature. In this system, there are three large blocks that have their own specifics:
1) Encyclopedic publications (encyclopedias and encyclopedic dictionaries);
2) Language dictionaries;
3) Directories.
Encyclopedias and encyclopedic dictionaries are fundamental bodies of knowledge; they record the current level of knowledge in any field of science and practice, reflecting it as fully and comprehensively as possible.
According to their intended purpose, that is, according to the scope of application, scientific, industrial and practical, educational, mass political, and popular reference publications are distinguished.
Encyclopedic publications. Encyclopedia is a reference publication containing, in a generalized form, basic information on one or all branches of knowledge and practical activity, presented in the form of short articles arranged in alphabetical or systematic order.
There are:
Universal encyclopedias (for all branches of knowledge, for example, “The Great Soviet Encyclopedia” in 30 volumes; “Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron”),
Sectoral (covering one branch of knowledge, for example, “Medical Encyclopedia”; “Brief Literary Encyclopedia”),
National and regional (for example, "Encyclopedia of China"),
Biographical (for example, “Lermontov Encyclopedia”).
The need for a compilation and classification of knowledge arose among humanity in ancient times. Gradually, the task of “teaching the entire range of knowledge” (this is how the word “encyclopedia” is translated from Greek) is formulated with an educational goal - to communicate the totality of information contained in the sciences.
Signs of an encyclopedia
The fundamental features that distinguish encyclopedias from other reference publications are:
completeness of information on this criterion material selection;
systematic presentation of each branch of knowledge (from highest to lowest); references (in-article or in the form of reference articles) are a necessary element to ensure the consistency of the encyclopedia;
scientific, that is, the presentation of facts established by science and social practice in terms and concepts accepted in science;
objectivity when characterizing concepts, events, objects and biographical data, including by observing volumetric proportions;
factual accuracy;
unification of the presentation of material while maintaining the author’s style;
conciseness and popularity of presentation;
the presence of a definition (definition) in each article;
schematic presentation;
presentation of facts without emotional personal assessments;
illustrative material is an integral part of systematic scientific and reference information, closely related to the text of the article;
availability of scientific reference apparatus: alphabetical subject and name indexes, etc.
Encyclopedic dictionaries
Unlike encyclopedias, in which the bulk of information is contained in articles characterizing concepts, events, facts, and biographies in relatively detailed terms, in encyclopedic dictionaries the main semantic load falls on the definition; the articles are laconic and arranged in alphabetical order.
Examples: “Popular Encyclopedic Dictionary”, “Encyclopedic Legal Dictionary”, etc.
Language dictionaries contain lexical units of one language and help clarify the pronunciation, spelling, features of use, origin, and translation of a word.
There are:
Explanatory, explaining (current) meanings of words and illustrating their use (for example, “Explanatory Dictionary of Living Great Russian language"Vladimir Dahl or "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" by S.I. Ozhegova);
Translated, English-Russian, Russian-German, etc., containing everyday vocabulary and phraseology;
Special vocabulary (terminological) representing the language of a particular area of scientific and practical activity (for example, “Dictionary of Economic Terms”);
Spelling - provide information about the correct spelling of words and grammatical forms in which errors are most often made;
Etymological, explaining the origin of words;
Phraseological, revealing the meaning and origin of phraseological units (stable combinations);
Orthoepic, which outlines how to correctly, literally pronounce this or that word;
Synonyms that explain the meaning of words and the selection of words that are similar in meaning;
Antonimov - selection of words with opposite meanings, etc.
Directories are the most diverse group of reference publications from a thematic and typological point of view; These include address books, catalogs of goods and services, etc.
Structure of the reference book
Any reference publication has a certain structure. It consists of:
Preface, which describes the purpose of the publication, its structure, and how to work with the publication. When starting to work with an unfamiliar dictionary, first of all look at the preface - it will help you navigate the publication correctly, and, therefore, save time when searching for any information;
The main block of information is dictionary entries;
In encyclopedias, material is often arranged in a thematic or systematic order. For example, in the encyclopedia “Animal Life” the first volume is devoted to viruses and single-celled organisms, the second to mollusks, etc. to mammals.
In language and explanatory dictionaries, dictionary entries are arranged in alphabetical order. A dictionary entry begins with a title; this title is the word discussed in the article. As a rule, the title has an emphasis. The article contains the meaning of the word; the article can be supplemented with examples illustrating the use of the word in various situations in the reference apparatus of the publication.
The reference apparatus of a publication may include a list of abbreviations found in the publication, an alphabetical subject index (ASU), and contents. As a rule, reference publications are distinguished by good reference apparatus: various indexes allow you to navigate the text and quickly obtain the necessary information. For example, if we need to know what size a sunfish can reach, we will open the alphabetical index of the names of animals mentioned in the book in the Animal Life encyclopedia, find the sunfish there with links to the pages where this name appears and read that They can offer us some advice on this topic.
As objects of increased attention, the editor identifies individual elements of the text in which factual errors are most likely. Such elements should include: unreasoned, uncommented formulations and provisions, general statements, well-known information, historical and other events, demonstrative words and words that influence the meaning of the statement or are decisive for the meaning, captions to illustrations, links of all types, quotes, terms, definitions, numbers, dates, names, names, units of quantities.
The practice of popularization has formed a number of techniques for introducing terms into the text.
“Stone,” writes A.E. Fersman, “is a dead part of nature: cobblestones, simple clay, limestone of sidewalks, a precious stone in a museum window, iron ore in a factory and salt in a salt shaker.”
Having used the term beryllium, A.E. Fersman limits himself to saying: “the lightest metal of the earth.”
Meaning special concept sometimes it is deciphered as if in passing, in parentheses or in one or two words. Example:
“There, in the dense limestone, there were whole geodes, or layers of dense brown silicon.”
Terms that are not widely used are reported in parentheses: “I... did not talk about wonderful clays with bleaching properties (Gzhel), fire-resistant and acid-resistant.”
Modern means of popularizing scientific knowledge are varied. These include cinema, television, radio, and periodicals. A special role belongs to book and magazine publications. Many popular science magazines are published in our country. Widely known are “Science and Life”, “Chemistry and Life”, “Nature”, etc.
Popular science books continue to be the most fundamental means of popularization. In a broad sense, a popular science book publication should be considered a publication that contains information about theoretical and/or experimental research and is intended to popularize and promote the fundamentals and achievements of science and technology, culture and the results of applied activities among the general public in a form accessible to them.
IN general subject the content of a popular science publication can be considered everything that is related to science and scientific research: the results of scientific research, the scientific field in which research is (conducted); object of study; scientific problem (task), purpose and method of research; the conditions under which research is conducted and the equipment and materials used; facts that form the basis of research (science), including data from observations and experiments, discoveries, inventions, theories, laws, hypotheses, etc. Describing the subject matter of a popular science publication, we can say in the words of N. G. Chernyshevsky: “...Popular books a heavy ingot of gold, smelted by science, is minted into a current coin.”
The topics of popular science publications can be very broad. It should be determined by the needs and objectives of society, the interests and demand of readers. The purpose and functional properties of popular science publications are related to this.
The purpose of the popular science publication is to popularize and promote the fundamentals and achievements of science, technology, culture and the results of applied activities among the general public. As for the functional properties, they are very diverse.
The most important function of a popular science book is the popularization and propaganda of scientific knowledge. This, in the most general definition, is the intended purpose of the book in question. This function, along with educational and educational functions, has been the leading one at all times. By promoting scientific knowledge, a scientist conveys to the masses the last word in science and thereby introduces them to this new knowledge, helping to improve their educational level and solving the educational problem. Scientific knowledge spiritually enriches the reader of a popular science book, awakening in him further cognitive interest, contributes to the development of his creative initiative, and finally introduces him to knowledge. N.K. Krupskaya’s call to scientists to come to the aid of workers in their studies is widely known. In her speeches in the press and in correspondence with famous scientists, she invited them to give their knowledge to the people. Her appeals were addressed to S.I. Vavilov, V.L. Komarov, A.N. Bahu, N.D. Zelinsky, A.E. Fersman et al.
One of the main goals of a popular science book is to form the scientific worldview of the reader. The worldview function involves the presentation in a popular science book of natural science knowledge and the laws of nature, coverage of achievements in the development of theoretical problems that open up new prospects for science and, on its basis, new opportunities for the progress of production. Examples of scientific decisions that had a special impact on the understanding of the objective reality of the world were Darwin's theory of natural selection, Mendeleev's periodic law, and Pavlov's theory of conditioned reflexes.
The combination of science and democracy as a condition for the formation of a scientific worldview was the program of scientific creativity of K. A. Timiryazev. He argued that the goals and needs of science and democracy, true science and true democracy, are the same. The popularization activities of K.A. also served the purpose of shaping the scientific worldview of readers. Timiryazev on the spread of Darwinism. Thanks to his masterful propaganda, Charles Darwin's Theory of the Origin of Species received rapid and widespread recognition in our country.
The implementation of the function of forming a scientific worldview is directly related to introducing a person to scientific knowledge, cultivating in the reader sensitivity, understanding of the essence of science, scientific and technological progress. Popular art publications perform an important function of aesthetic education.
For everyone who follows the development of science, popular science publications, regardless of whether they relate to technical, humanities, art or other branches of scientific knowledge, are necessary and useful as a means of expanding scientific and educational horizons. This function has no less broad significance than those listed above. In any case, it can be assumed that the goal of becoming familiar with the latest achievements of science quite often acts as an incentive for reading various publications and especially magazine and newspaper articles and notes, as well as for listening to radio messages or watching television programs.
Promoting the expansion of readers' scientific and educational horizons may be associated with the performance of other functions by a popular science publication: facilitating the reader's solution of practical problems; professional orientation of the reader; adapting it to certain conditions, etc. The importance of the opportunities provided by a popular science publication will depend on the goals of the action and the interests of the reader, as well as on his desire to implement the information received.
The named functional properties of a popular science publication must be taken into account when preparing the publication for publication. It is necessary to see which reader the publication is addressed to. It is clear that the issue of career guidance, for example, may be relevant primarily for young people who have embarked on the path of independent life and work.
There are points of view according to which a popular science publication should perform informative functions. This is not controversial. In principle, any book is a means of recording, storing and transmitting information.
Evaluating a popular science book in this way, one should recognize it as a means of scientific communication. Of course, not in the same quality as a scientific book. It can be considered as a source of scientific information not only in the field of domestic science, but also foreign science. Therefore, it is important (and the editor should take care of this) that scientific popularization does not ignore the achievements of world science.
Until relatively recently, popular science books were mostly addressed to readers who did not have a systematic education. The authors of popular science books, when presenting scientific material, followed the path of simplification, cited as many elementary concepts as possible from physics, chemistry, astronomy, mathematics, geology, biology and other sciences, which are basic for natural science and technology, and gave them a popular interpretation.
In modern conditions, the tasks of scientific popularization have expanded and become more complex, because the reader has “grown” and changed greatly. As has been shown, the functions of a popular science book have also expanded. It is needed not only by the broad masses of readers, but also by scientists and specialists in various fields. It is needed by those who are studying and those who have graduated from an educational institution. It is also needed in postgraduate education. At this stage, knowledge comes from independent work, and a popular science book helps with this. The problems of modern science and technology in a broad sense are of interest to doctors, teachers, lawyers, actors, and artists.
Thus, it turns out that now a popular science book has become a universal need. At the same time, it is obvious that it cannot be the same for everyone. Consequently, the editor needs to have a clear understanding of the level of expertise and needs of specific groups of readers. Only under this condition can we provide the reader with the book he needs.
A strict division of readers of a popular science book into groups is a difficult matter to resolve. Its readership includes everyone from schoolchildren to scientists. This is based on educational level, ability to perceive scientific knowledge and the purpose of obtaining it. There are other factors that determine the need for popular science books: the nature of regular studies, specialty, the reader’s attitude to the area of scientific knowledge that the book reflects (direct, indirect, etc.), age, cognitive inclinations, and much more.
Identification of reader needs is carried out through marketing research.
The readership of a popular science book can be divided into two parts: the one that is mass and includes non-specialist readers, and the one that includes specialists from related industries.
The mass reader is very diverse, and its division into any specific groups is perhaps largely arbitrary. We can identify a significant readership category, which is represented by people with fairly high general training, including those with higher professional education, who follow the development of science, technology, art, and show a systematic interest in the achievements of scientific, technical and social progress. In a popular science book, these readers are looking for answers to pressing questions of the universe, existence, and spiritual life. Their interests may be determined by the need for further self-education and the desire to fill their leisure time with useful reading. Along with curiosity, they may have a penchant for cognitive activity, for analysis, generalization and evaluation of new scientific and technical achievements, as well as for identifying possibilities for their use.
The other group consists of readers who have a general, integral understanding of the world and are interested in new knowledge about it as a means of self-education and with the desire to gain wider knowledge of it. Such readers can be people with secondary education and certain life experience. For them, a popular science book can be a valuable aid in solving practical issues. Of course, this is not just about education. It has to be mentioned mainly because the editor must take into account when creating a book the possibilities of its reading and perception by the reader. In principle, the readers whom we include in this group are well-read people, sometimes possessing systematic knowledge of the subject and a stable, definite worldview.
A broad mass group is represented by students of all types and forms of education - from primary school students to university graduates. Obviously, this group should be considered, dividing it into a number of subgroups, at least according to educational and age criteria. You can also take into account the psychological mood and cognitive interest, which largely depend on the level of education, age, and gender.
For students, a popular science book may be of special interest as a teaching tool that complements mandatory educational publications and serves to expand program knowledge.
When considering the category of readers, which consists of specialists from related fields, one must take into account one of the features of modern science and technology. During the scientific and technological revolution, the functions and structure of production are fragmented and the sciences are differentiated. But the prevailing and determining trend is another trend - integration, leading to the formation of science as a single complex system. On the one hand, at the junctions of two, even three traditional sciences, new ones arise (biochemistry, physical and chemical mechanics). On the other hand, sciences of a synthesizing nature are born, uniting a number of widely separated sciences, often natural and humanities (cybernetics, scientific studies), and the interpenetration of research methods occurs. For example, as a result of the mathematization of sciences, mathematical geology and mathematical linguistics arose. Increasingly, problems are being solved that require knowledge in the field of a number of sciences (bionics).
Another example is the development and application in various fields, including science itself, of new information technologies, and the widespread informatization of the entire society.
Scientists admit that modern science develops so rapidly, has become so complex and multifaceted that a person, in order to fully live the life of his time, cannot do without scientific knowledge, popularly presented. Here is the opinion of academician B. M. Kedrov: “...For the most part, scientists become acquainted with the achievements of colleagues from other fields, with the latest innovations in Soviet and world science through popular literature. Nowadays, in the same chemistry, the frontier of research is so wide that a scientist on the right flank is unlikely to understand... what is going on on the left.” Consequently, we can say that one of the new functions of a popular science book is the mutual information of scientists and engineering workers about the state and problems, achievements and new research methods used in a wide variety of branches of knowledge.
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