A certain contribution to the study of the mechanism of human motivation to work was made by B. Skinner’s theory of strengthening motivation, which is quite simple and convenient for practical use. This theory reflects important aspect motivation - its dependence on people's past experiences. According to Skinner's theory, people's behavior is determined by the consequences of their actions in a similar situation in the past. Employees learn from their experiences and try to take on tasks that previously yielded positive results, and, conversely, avoid tasks that previously resulted in negative results.
Schematically, the mechanism of behavior according to Skinner can be depicted as follows:
Figure 2.5 - Behavior mechanism (B. Skinner)
According to this model, the presence of incentives causes a person to behave in a certain way. If the consequences of behavior are positive, then the employee will behave similarly in the same situation in the future, i.e. his behavior will be repeated. If the consequences are negative, then in the future he either will not respond to such incentives or will change the nature of his behavior. Repeated repetitions of the same results lead to the formation of a certain behavioral attitude in a person.
Applying Skinner's theory in practice, the manager must foresee the psychological impact of the consequences of employees performing the tasks that he gives them, and set before them completely achievable goals, the implementation of which can cause a positive psychological effect in them.
The most detailed series of practical tips for managers stemming from Skinner's theory of enhancing motivation was developed by W. K. Hamner. His advice is:
1. Don't reward everyone equally. Reward only causes a positive effect if it directly depends on the activities of the subordinate. Equal rewards only reinforce poor or average performance.
2. Failure to receive remuneration is also a factor influencing subordinates. Managers can influence their employees through both action and inaction. For example, if a person who deserves praise does not receive it, then next time he will perform worse.
3. Explain to people what they must do to receive the reward. A clear definition of performance standards allows employees to timely and correctly focus their behavior on receiving rewards and improve their achievements.
4. Show people exactly what they are doing wrong. If an employee is deprived of remuneration without appropriate explanation, this will cause him confusion and resentment. In addition, he will not be able to correct the error in a timely manner.
5. Do not punish subordinates in the presence of other employees, especially those who know them well. A public reprimand is an effective means of influencing subordinates, but it humiliates their dignity and can cause resentment against the manager not only of the victim himself, but also of other members of the group.
6. When rewarding employees, be honest and fair. The consequences of any behavior must be adequate to this behavior. People should receive only the reward they deserve. Both undeserved rewards and those earned but not received by the employee reduce his motivation and generally undermine trust in the manager.
The motivation enhancement theory has been criticized on various fronts. It is reproached for its simplicity and ignorance of internal, psychological stimuli, individual characteristics of people, the influence of the team, for the primitivization of human behavior by reducing it to the “stimulus-response” principle. But, despite these reproaches, used without absolutization, in a system with other approaches it is useful in practical work, especially in relation to workers whose material needs dominate.
It is no coincidence that this theory is widely used by many companies.
Theory work motivation Atkinson proceeds from the fact that employee behavior is the result of interaction individual qualities personality and situation, its perception. Every person strives for success, avoids failures and has 2 corresponding motives: the motive for success - Mu and the motive for avoiding failure - Mn. These motives are quite stable and are formed in the process of learning and work. They reveal a person’s desire for a certain level satisfy your needs.
In addition to the personal qualities expressed in the two indicated motives, a person’s behavior is influenced by 2 situational variables: the probability of success with which the employee expects the completion of his activity - Wu and the attractiveness of success (the value of the incentive) for the individual - Pu. Moreover, the attractiveness of success is directly related to the probability of success according to the formula: Pu = 1-Vu. The higher the probability of success, the lower its attractiveness.
The desire for success, which expresses the strength of motivation, can be represented by the following formula: Su = Mu*Vu*Pu.
Any specific situation activates the motive for success and at the same time the motive that encourages you to avoid failure - Mn. In this case, the sum of the probability of expecting success - Wu and the probability of success - Bn is equal to 1 (since if there is complete success, then it is equal to 1, and the probability of failure is then equal to 0).
Vn = 1 – Wu
Individuals who are more success-oriented (Mu > Mn) prefer tasks medium difficulty, since in this case the degree of risk is lower, although the attractiveness of success is less. At the same time, workers who accept failure for the sake of the high attractiveness of possible achievement of the goal (“risky” personality type) prefer extreme tasks according to the “make or break” principle.
incentives > behavior > consequences > future behavior
Skinner's concept of enhancing motivation is quite simple and convenient for practical use. This theory reflects an important aspect of motivation - its dependence on people's past experiences. People's behavior is determined by the consequences of their actions in a similar situation in the past. Employees learn from their experiences and try to take on tasks that previously yielded positive results, and, conversely, avoid tasks that previously resulted in negative results.
Schematically, the mechanism of behavior according to Skinner can be depicted as follows:
incentives > behavior > consequences > future behavior
According to this model, the presence of incentives causes a person to behave in a certain way.
Hamner developed implications for managers from this concept:
1) Don't reward everyone equally.
2) failure to receive remuneration is also a factor influencing subordinates.
3) explain to people what they must do to receive the reward.
4) show people exactly what they are doing wrong.
5) do not punish subordinates in the presence of other employees, especially those who know them well.
6) when rewarding employees, be honest and fair.
The theory of enhancing motivation in 1938 was developed by B. Skinner. She made a certain contribution to the study of the mechanism of human motivation to work. This theory reflects an important aspect of motivation: its dependence on people's past experiences.
According to B. Skinner's theory, people's behavior is determined by the consequences of their actions in a similar situation in the past. Employees learn from their experiences and try to take on tasks that have previously produced positive results and avoid tasks that have previously produced negative results.
Schematically, the mechanism of behavior, according to B. Skinner, can be depicted as follows:
Stimuli → behavior → consequences → future behavior.
According to this model, the presence of incentives causes a person to behave in a certain way. If the consequences of behavior are positive, then the employee will behave similarly in the same situation in the future, that is, his behavior will be repeated. If the consequences are negative, then in the future he either will not respond to such incentives or will change the nature of his behavior. Repeated repetitions of the same results lead to the formation of a certain behavioral attitude in a person.
Applying B. Skinner's theory in practice, the manager must foresee how the consequences of completing the tasks given to them affect employees, and set completely achievable goals for them, the implementation of which can cause a positive psychological effect in them.
Practical advice for managers(according to B. Skinner’s theory of increased motivation):
1. Don't reward everyone equally. Reward only has a positive effect if it depends directly on the activities of the subordinate. Equal remuneration for everyone encourages poor or average performance.
2. Failure to receive remuneration is also a factor influencing subordinates. Managers can influence subordinate employees through both action and inaction. For example, if a person who deserves praise does not receive it, then next time he will perform worse.
3. Explain to employees what they must do to be rewarded. A clear definition of performance standards allows employees to promptly and correctly direct their own behavior towards receiving rewards and improve their achievements.
4. Show people exactly what they are doing wrong. If an employee is deprived of compensation without appropriate explanation, this causes bewilderment and resentment. In addition, in this case he will not be able to correct the error in a timely manner.
5. Do not punish subordinates in the presence of other employees, especially those they know well. A public reprimand is an effective means of influencing subordinates, but it humiliates their dignity and can cause resentment against the manager not only of the victim, but also of other members of the group.
b. When rewarding employees, be honest and fair. The consequences of any behavior must be adequate to it. People should receive the reward they deserve. Both undeserved rewards and those earned but not received by the employee reduce his motivation and generally undermine trust in the manager.
B. Skinner's theory of increased motivation has been criticized in various ways. It is reproached for its simplicity and ignoring internal, psychological stimuli, individual characteristics of people, the influence of the team, for schematizing human behavior by reducing it to the “stimulus-response” principle. However, in a system with other approaches, the theory of enhancing motivation is useful in practical work, especially regarding workers who are dominated by material needs.
The theory of enhancing motivation in 1938 was developed by B. Skinner. She made a certain contribution to the study of the mechanism of human motivation to work. This theory reflects an important aspect of motivation: its dependence on people's past experiences.
According to B. Skinner's theory, people's behavior is determined by the consequences of their actions in a similar situation in the past. Employees learn from their experiences and try to take on tasks that have previously produced positive results and avoid tasks that have previously produced negative results.
Schematically, the mechanism of behavior, according to B. Skinner, can be depicted as follows:
Stimuli - behavior - consequences - future behavior.
According to this model, the presence of incentives causes a person to behave in a certain way. If the consequences of behavior are positive, then the employee will behave similarly in the same situation in the future, that is, his behavior will be repeated. If the consequences are negative, then in the future he either will not respond to such incentives or will change the nature of his behavior. Repeated repetitions of the same results lead to the formation of a certain behavioral attitude in a person.
Applying B. Skinner's theory in practice, the manager must foresee how the consequences of completing the tasks given to them affect employees, and set completely achievable goals for them, the implementation of which can cause a positive psychological effect in them.
2.1 Analysis of process theories of motivation
Motivated activity is purposeful. The goal is usually associated with the direct or indirect satisfaction of some need.
The strength of goal orientation depends in part on the extent to which the individual feels rewarded for achieving the goal.
The strength of the drive to obtain a reward or other goal (in other words, executive motivation) depends on:
- reward values (desirability);
- its achievability (the reality of receiving a reward, the “value of expectations”).
What a person values depends on his needs. In order for a person to be motivated for a certain activity, his achievements in this activity must be rewarded with something that he values, and the reward must be associated with achieving the goal so that the person notices it.
On the other hand, everyone knows that even persistent efforts do not always guarantee achieving the goal. Based on previously gained experience, an idea (expectation) is formed about how real the possibility of achieving the goal is. In this case, all opportunities and obstacles arising from the environment and situation of the moment are also weighed.
If expectations are high, the strength of the incentive increases. Previous successful experience also reinforces the expectation that the corresponding result could be obtained. Thus, success increases motivation.
If expectations are not fulfilled, obstacles to achieving the goal give rise to a feeling of futility of efforts. The greater the importance (value) of an unachieved goal for a person, the greater the feeling of futility. Next time, perhaps, the level of the goal will be slightly reduced and, if the goal is not achieved several times, the assessment of the reality of its achievement will decrease and motivation will decrease. “Is it worth trying...” Feelings of futility reduce motivation, and low motivation reduces performance contribution, makes goal achievement more difficult, and causes even greater feelings of futility. The circle closes.
The feeling of futility can be eliminated by setting realistic goals, bringing expectations closer to reality, and rewarding the achievement of goals in a way that the employee himself values.
The difference between the theory of justice and the theory of expectations is that in the process of work a person compares the assessment of his actions with the assessment of similar actions of his colleagues and, on this basis, comes to a conclusion about the fairness of his pay. Injustice can exist in the form of underpayment (it is tolerated more acutely and causes indignation) and overpayment (it is felt less frequently, and a normal person has a feeling of guilt or dependence).
The third theory is the theory of goal setting, which proceeds from the fact that a person’s behavior is determined by the goals that he sets for himself and for the sake of which he performs certain actions.
The theory of participative management can be implemented in the following areas:
Employees are given the right to make their own decisions regarding how to carry out labor activity on implementation planned target(for example, introduce flexible work hours or use certain problem-solving technology);
Their immediate supervisor involves them in making group decisions on production issues (regarding draft plans, use of resources, forms of remuneration, etc.);
Employees are given the right to operational control of product quality, personal or group responsibility for final result(personal quality mark, team quality control, delivery of products from the first presentation, etc.);
Employees take personal and group participation in innovative, inventive and rationalization activities with various methods of reward for introducing innovations;
Production and functional divisions (sites, teams, services, departments) are created taking into account the wishes of employees. This achieves the possibility of transforming informal groups into formal units.
In Ukraine, the use of participatory management will become possible only with an increase in the level of general culture and morality of workers, as well as the exhaustion of the reserves of a purely authoritarian management style.
The theory of L. Porter - E. Lawler made a significant contribution to the understanding of motivation. She showed that motivation is not a simple element in the chain of cause and effect. It also shows how important it is to integrate concepts such as effort, ability, performance, reward, satisfaction, and perception into a unified theory of motivation.
It has been established that only under certain conditions does an increase in wages stimulate an increase in labor productivity. The first is that people should give wages great importance. The second is that people must believe that there is a clear connection between wages and productivity and that an increase in labor productivity will necessarily lead to an increase in wages.
Obviously, it is desirable for personnel to have a connection between wages and achieved work results. However, studies have shown that managers often evaluate the effort expended by an employee based on his experience and time spent at work, and not at all on the results achieved.
Skinner's theory. According to this model, the presence of incentives causes a person to behave in a certain way. If the consequences of behavior are positive, then the employee will behave similarly in the same situation in the future, that is, his behavior will be repeated. If the consequences are negative, then in the future he either will not respond to such incentives or will change the nature of his behavior. Repeated repetitions of the same results lead to the formation of a certain behavioral attitude in a person.
In our country, the most common use of the first three theories is.
This theory is based on the assumption that motivation depends on people’s previous experience. The point is that the employee’s desire to work quite effectively is largely determined by the level of reward for his actions in a similar situation in the past. The existing positive experience encourages employees to take on tasks that previously gave quite satisfactory results, i.e. their behavior is repeated. In case of negative consequences a person will either stop responding to such a motivator or will avoid such actions in every possible way. Thus, when setting certain tasks, it is important for the manager to anticipate them psychological impact per employee. In the specialized literature, this theory was developed in the form of the following recommendations for managers:
1. Don't reward everyone equally. Reward only causes a positive effect if it directly depends on the activities of the subordinate. Equal rewards only reinforce poor or average performance.
2. Lack of remuneration is also a factor influencing subordinates. Managers can influence their employees through both action and inaction.
For example, if a person who deserves praise does not receive it, then he will perform worse.
3. Explain to people what they must do to receive the reward. A clear definition of performance standards allows employees to timely and correctly focus their behavior on receiving rewards.
4. Show people exactly what they are doing wrong. If an employee is deprived of remuneration without appropriate explanation, this causes him bewilderment and resentment. In addition, he will not be able to correct the error in a timely manner.
5. Do not punish subordinates in the presence of other employees, especially those you know well. A public reprimand is an effective means of influencing subordinates, but it humiliates their dignity and can cause resentment against the manager not only of the victim himself, but also of other members of the group.
6. When rewarding employees, be honest and fair. The consequences of any behavior must be adequate to this behavior. People should receive only such remuneration, and remuneration earned but not received by the employee reduces his motivation and, in general, trust in the manager.
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