In Ivan Fedorov’s workshop, near a narrow high window, there are wooden letters - these are fonts with the help of which words are imprinted on paper... Nearby are engraving boards on which these letters are laid out in the required order. On the shelf there is a bookbinder's knife and a scroll of leather with which the book will be bound. The sheets of paper have not yet been delivered to the master and his assistants, and the book will be ready only in a year. It was the wealthy Prince Ostrozhsky who ordered a printed Gospel for his home library...
Who is Fedorov? Ivan Fedorov is the pioneer printer of the 16th century, from whose press the first books in Rus' came out. The first printed books in Rus' - “Apostle”, “Book of Hours” and “Primer” were created precisely in the printing house of Ivan Fedorov, in 1563-65.
Ivan Fedorov came from Moscow, but he had to leave his hometown because he was not allowed to publish books there. Tsar Ivan the Terrible supported the idea of printing books in Moscow, he was interested in new products, but the church and many boyars were categorically against it. The confessors considered the printing press to be a “demonic invention,” and competitors from the monks, who wrote handwritten books and made a living from it, were very dissatisfied with the appearance of Fedorov’s printing press, a technical novelty.
They were afraid that Fedorov would take their bread from them. Thus, Fedorov was expelled from Moscow; there is information that religious fanatics even burned his printing house. This is all the more surprising because Fedorov himself belonged to the clergy and served in the church before starting typography.
Fedorov in Lithuania. He moved to Lvov, Galicia, and there he reopened the printing house. Soon, in 1568, Fedorov's masters had already printed the first book in a new place - the Gospels, then the second edition of the Apostle. Ivan Fedorov worked there until his death.
There were no factories or factories in the medieval city. A variety of products sold in city markets were produced in small workshops of artisans.
There were no machines in the workshop; everything was done by hand, using the simplest tools. To forge a ploughshare for a plow, the blacksmith used tongs to pull out a piece of red-hot iron from the forge, put it on an anvil and hit it with a hammer for a long time.
In the medieval city there was small-scale production based on manual labor.
The technique of the craft developed slowly. The father's specialty was usually inherited by the son. Along with the secrets of his craft, his father passed on his simple instruments to him. Thanks to long training, vast experience and dexterity in manual labor, artisans achieved perfection in their work. Clothmakers learned to produce thin soft fabrics and dye them in different colors, gunsmiths made intricately decorated armor.
Who worked in the workshop
The main worker in the workshop was a master craftsman. He was also the owner of the workshop in the workshop with all its equipment and tools.
The master purchased raw materials and made products from them.
1 Raw materials - leather, wool, iron and other materials from which industrial products are produced
The workshop often served as a shop for selling finished items.
The city craftsman-master was the owner of the tools. Unlike the peasant, the artisan produced things to order or for sale.
In addition to the master, apprentices and apprentices worked in the workshop. Teenage apprentices performed auxiliary work and learned a craft. To gain experience, you had to study for a long time. By sending his son to study, the father almost sold him to the master for many years (see agreement on hiring a student). Life was not easy for the students. They were forced to help with housework in the master's house; at the same time, they were often showered with abuse and beatings.
The master's right hand was an apprentice - a worker who had already learned the craft. From sunrise to nightfall, he worked his back in the cramped workshop. For his hard work, the apprentice received a small payment. But after several years of work, he could become a master and open his own workshop.
In the workshop of a medieval gunsmith. A cramped vaulted room on the ground floor of a craftsman's house. A ray of sun barely breaks through the small window. There is a forge in the back, a grinding wheel and a vice to the right. On the shelves are hand tools: hammers, drills, pliers, files. The master tries on iron armor on the knight. His students help him. At the window, an apprentice is finishing off a breastplate with a hammer.
Guilds-unions of artisans
For a long time, most peasants continued to produce everything they needed for themselves. Therefore, at first there were few buyers of handicrafts. To sell their products, craftsmen had to agree among themselves on how many goods would be produced in each workshop. Craftsmen of the same specialty, living in the same city, united into unions - guilds.
There were workshops of weavers, shoemakers, masons, carpenters and many others.
1 Do not confuse with modern workshops - departments of factories and factories.
At the general meeting, the masters adopted the charter - rules binding on all members of the workshop. The charter required that artisans make things according to a certain pattern, from good raw materials. The rules stated how many machines each master could have, how many students and apprentices he had the right to keep in the workshop. The charter forbade craftsmen to discourage each other's buyers.
At the head of the workshop were foremen elected by the masters. They monitored compliance with shop rules and severely punished those artisans who violated the regulations. For example, if a London baker sold an underweight loaf, he was driven around the city in a cage to the ridicule of everyone.
The guild rules reflected the concern of artisans to attract more buyers to the city. The guilds tried to prevent rivalry between craftsmen and the enrichment of some artisans at the expense of others (see excerpts from the charter of the Parisian weavers' guild).
Wanting to be complete masters of their market, guild masters persecuted and even expelled from the city artisans who were not part of the guilds. They vigilantly ensured that artisans from other cities and rural areas did not sell their products at the city market.
The role of workshops in the life of the city
The entire life of artisans was connected with the workshops. They organized joint holidays. The workshop had a cash fund from which assistance was provided to needy craftsmen and their families. The members of the workshop formed a detachment of the city army. Craftsmen united in unions united in the fight against the enemies of the city.
For a long time, guilds contributed to the development of crafts. In the cities, the number of artisans of various specialties increased, and new types of craft arose. In Paris in the 14th century there were 300 guilds and about 5,500 artisans.
But as the number of craftsmen grew, competition between them in the sale of products intensified. The guilds began to prevent apprentices from becoming masters. Only the sons of masters freely received the title of master. The apprentices had to pass a difficult exam: using their own funds to make the best example of a product from expensive material. In addition, it was necessary to arrange a feast for the members of the workshop and pay a large entrance fee.
There were more and more apprentices in the cities, who remained workers for the masters all their lives. They were called "eternal apprentices".
The workshops did not allow the expansion of workshops and the introduction of new tools. There were cases when shop foremen destroyed valuable inventions and brutally dealt with inventors. This caused great harm to the development of technology and began to retard the growth of handicraft production in cities.
DOCUMENTS
Student employment agreement
I, Johann Teunburg, announce to everyone that I am giving to a decent husband, goldsmith Eilf Bruwer, my son Tenis to study the craft of a goldsmith in Cologne. Tenis is obliged to serve by faith for 8 years without a break.
Master Ailf is obliged to feed my son for all 8 years. I am obliged to wear it.
If it happens that I, the above-mentioned Tenis, run away from my master and begin to practice my craft on my own before the end of eight years, then I am obliged to pay the master a fine (the amount of the fine is indicated).
Excerpts from the regulations of the Parisian wool weavers' workshop
Every Parisian wool weaver can have two wide looms and one narrow one in his house, but outside the house he cannot have any.
Each wool weaver can have no more than one apprentice in his house, but not less than four years of service.
All cloth should be all wool and as good in the beginning as in the middle.
No one from the workshop should start work before sunrise under threat of a fine.
Journeyman weavers must leave work as soon as the first bell rings for evening prayer, but they must fold their work after the bell rings.
History of the Middle Ages (end of the 5th century - mid-17th century)
Donskoy, Agibalova
Message on the topic "In the pioneer printer's workshop" for 3rd grade.
During the reign of Tsar Ivan the Terrible, book printing began in Rus'.
The first in this complex and honorable task was Ivan Fedorov and his assistants.
To print books, at the behest of the Tsar, the Printing Yard was built in Moscow, on Nikolskaya Street.
A printing press from Poland was brought to the first printing house for the workshop of the pioneer printer.
To print books, the Printing Yard produced cast metal letters, as well as boards for engravings and many other tools.
The work in the pioneer printer's workshop was difficult, because the machines for printing books were not yet fully debugged, there was a lot of manual labor, but they got the job done.
After 9 months of work, in March 1564, the world saw the first printed Russian book, “The Apostle.”
This book was first brought by the first printer to Tsar Ivan the Terrible.
The Tsar carefully studied the book, appreciating the painted capital red letters, the splash page and the rich leather binding.
After Ivan the Terrible read the entire book and found no flaws in it, he thanked the first printer Fedorov, saying that in Russia now the books will be the best in Europe.
What words help you understand that the Tsar liked the work of Ivan Fedorov?
When Tsar Ivan the Terrible read the book very carefully, his mood improved and he said several sentences, reading which we understand that the Tsar was pleased:
“You are very cunning, drukhar, in regard to printed art...”
“Well, drukar, they save their honor with their heads, he published a disgusting book. He pleased the tsar,” he praised Ivan Fedorov.
“But our books are no worse? The Drukhari have not disgraced the honor of the Russian land.” - Ivan the Terrible rejoiced.
Read with a friend the dialogue between the first printer and the king. How did Ivan Fedorov behave when meeting Ivan the Terrible? How did the king feel? Convey the mood and feelings of the characters when reading.
In the dialogue between the first printer and the tsar, we read that Ivan Fedorov was proud of his work, his book turned out perfect.
Everything about it was good: the ornaments (the screensaver), and the text was written correctly without errors, and the capital letters were painted and decorated.
The book itself looked very nice, bound in rich leather and was easy to read.
Ivan the Terrible at the beginning of the dialogue was very angry and threatening, but after he read the book, he also became proud of Russia and his mood changed to complacent and enthusiastic.
The Tsar spoke approvingly of the pioneer printer’s work and praised him.
And when I compared foreign books and Russian books, I even began to smile with pleasure that my native book was printed much better than foreign books.
Grace and splendor are very inherent in jewelry. Only great masters can give precious metals and stones the beauty of a completed masterpiece. After all, for example, gold in its original form looks quite unsightly. Just a piece of yellow metal. And when it falls into the hands of a master, it takes on elegant forms and becomes a truly unique creation of human hands and imagination.
One of the outstanding masters of jewelry art was Carl Faberge. His works are still the main value for the owners of his masterpieces.
The price of jewelry made by Faberge himself reaches enormous heights. But it is not only gold and precious stones that determine the value of a work of art. The skill and technique of the famous jeweler is an example for professionals in the gold world of art.
Life is just beginning
The full name of the world-famous jeweler was Peter Carl Gustavovich Faberge. Oddly enough, he was born in Russia. In the family of a jeweler appeared in 1846 son, who later became a famous master in the field of creating unique jewelry. Even then, Karl’s father had a store in which there was a brisk trade in items made of precious metals. Therefore, the family was quite wealthy.
In 1860, the Fabergé family moved to Dresden. Here Karl received his primary education.
At all Carl Faberge graduated from several educational institutions. And the basics of jewelry making were taught to him by his father. In addition, Karl trained with many professional jewelers of that time. For example, in Paris, the future master studied with Schloss, who knew how to create unique jewelry.
Karl in his younger years was a very enthusiastic person. He was interested in collecting paintings, engravings, and medals.
In 1870 Carl Faberge succeeded his father and became the head of the family jewelry company. He had to work hard so that, in the end, his products received the appropriate assessment. Only in 1882 he received a gold medal for his works of jewelry.
Result of activity Faberge was predetermined. After all, Karl treated his work not as a simple production of jewelry. The entire process of working with precious metals was creative nature. Each new product became a new stage in the understanding of jewelry art. After all, even things made from less expensive materials from Faberge cost a lot of money.
Faberge's work has received recognition
The fame of the great master of jewelry has reached its peak in 1885. He becomes the court supplier of the Highest Court and at the same time Faberge receives the right to depict the state emblem on a trade sign.
And in 1900, he became a master among the masters of jewelry, which happened at the World Exhibition in the capital of France. Charles received the Order of the Legion of Honor, which is the highest award in the French state, in the same year.
Received recognition Faberge and in Russia. And here he was awarded various orders for his services in jewelry. Karl supplied his products even to representatives of the royal family and was popular with all the rich aristocrats living at that time.
However, quite often one could notice how the spirit of rivalry hovered between him and such famous jewelers at that time as Julius Buti, Friedrich Koechli, Eduard Bolin and others. But Faberge's work was of a completely different nature than the work of other masters. Therefore, his share of orders from the Imperial Palace was constantly growing.
Karl gained access to the royal family's gold fund. He could freely study the techniques of making jewelry that came from ancient times. This acquaintance had a very positive impact on the further work of the great master.
Works by Faberge have become a value in any rich family. They were recognized, which naturally increased the status of one or another owner of the jewelry. But sometimes works Faberge did not have any practical significance. These were expensive trinkets. You can call them that.
Of course, his company did not consist of just him. Karl maintained a whole team of gifted employees who helped him carry out his plans. Each item was a one-piece item and was made to order over several months.
Celebration 300th anniversary of the Romanov imperial family led to a lot of orders, as a result of which a lot of beautiful jewelry was created. All works Faberge contained the emblem of the royal house. These included pins, brooches, badges, as well as the world-famous Easter egg, specially made for this occasion.
Faberge jewelry captivates with its diversity
Carl Faberge He was engaged not only in the creation of beautiful and magnificent jewelry. His company produced cigarette cases, snuff boxes, photo frames, watches, writing instruments and much more. However, the most popular products of the skilled jeweler were easter eggs. Their original design is still striking to this day.
The first such egg was ordered back in 1885 by Alexander III. Success was not long in coming. And now Faberge began to receive constant orders for the production of the next jewelry masterpiece. Total 54 works This kind of work was created by the great master specifically for the imperial family. Some Easter eggs were lost, many ended up in the hands of foreign owners.
But in 2004, these unique works of jewelry returned to their homeland thanks to the efforts of a Russian businessman who was able to buy the eggs for 100 million dollars.
Nobody needs jewelry anymore
As long as Tsarist Russia existed, the art of jewelry lived and flourished. The last Tsar of the Russian Empire NikolayII used the services of the great Carla Faberge. Repeatedly on his trips to Europe he was accompanied by precious masterpieces of the famous jeweler. Many beautiful things were presented to representatives of the nobility and royal families, which brought additional fame to the famous jewelry master.
However 1917 destroyed almost all jewelry art in Russia. The state became the rightful owner of all jewelry. The development of jewelers' creativity stopped. For many decades, jewelry craftsmanship was frozen.
Carl Faberge died in 1920. And with it, the skill of creating jewelry masterpieces practically died. And only in the 50s of the twentieth century the art of jewelry began to be revived. We remembered that once upon a time there lived and worked great master Carl Faberge.
However, his work began to be admired much later. Soviet principles did not allow people to pay tribute to the work of the great master. Jewelry from abroad has long been Carla Faberge have become a great value of all times and peoples. Now in Russia they are well aware that thanks to the revolutionary upheaval, the Russian people not only lost the art of jewelry, but also lost value in the idea of jewelry Faberge.
Birthplace of Carl Faberge- this is Petersburg. It was here that a school appeared that began to revive traditions associated with the work of the great master. The students here have already achieved many successes. The desire to return an era Faberge It's clear. Indeed, for the aesthetic development of a person, the Beautiful and the Wonderful must always surround a Person.
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A variety of products sold in cities were produced in small workshops of artisans. The workshop was usually located on the ground floor of the craftsman's house. There were no cars; Everything was done by hand using the simplest tools. The technique of the craft developed slowly. The father's specialty was usually inherited by the son, who worked in the workshop from childhood. Along with the secrets of mastery, his father also passed on simple tools to him.
Thanks to long training and vast experience, artisans achieved perfection in their craft. Their products were often true works of art. Clothmakers made soft, colorful fabrics, and gunsmiths made intricately decorated armor and swords. The products of jewelers and stone and wood carvers were especially distinguished by their fine artistic work. All this was done by people who loved their craft - it was a matter of pride and honor for them.
The main worker in the workshop was a craftsman - a master. He was also the owner of the workshop with all its equipment and tools. For a long time, craftsmen worked according to orders from buyers of products, but later they began to produce for future use and sell their goods on the market. The workshop usually also served as a shop in which the master sold manufactured items.
The urban artisan was a small owner of tools and an independent worker in his workshop. Unlike the peasant, the artisan produced things to order or for sale.
In addition to the master, apprentices and apprentices worked in the workshop. Teenage apprentices studied the craft and performed auxiliary work. To master the skill, it was necessary to study for a long time - from two to eight years. By sending his son to study, the father left him subordinate to the master for many years. Life was not easy for the students. They were forced to help with housework in the master's house; They were often cursed and beaten by their owners. By the end of the training, the student could do the work independently, but the master continued to use his free labor.
The master’s main assistant, his “right hand”, was the journeyman - a worker who had already studied the craft. He received wages for his work. The apprentice lived in the master's house, ate at his table, was under his constant supervision, and often married the master's daughter. Having accumulated the required amount of money, the apprentice could open his own workshop and become a master. To do this, he had to pass a difficult exam: using his own funds to produce a masterpiece - the best example of a product.
Crafts in a medieval city were small-scale industrial production based on manual labor.
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